Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950

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Sanitary Advisor to the Cuban Provisional Government.

From the description of Papers and correspondence of Gen. Kean's army career and tenure as Sanitary Advisor to the Cuban Provisional Government regarding Order of Indian Wars, Seventh Army Corps, 1898-1900 [manuscript] 1898-1949. (University of Virginia). WorldCat record id: 647970591

Surgeon and Army officer.

From the description of Papers of Jefferson Randolph Kean [manuscript] 1897-1950. (University of Virginia). WorldCat record id: 647934492

Jefferson Randolph Kean (1860-1950) was born in Lynchburg, Virginia and received his M.D. degree from the University of Virginia in 1883. He joined the Army Medical Department as an assistant surgeon the next year. During the Spanish American War Kean rose to the rank of Chief Surgeon with the 7th Army Corps in Cuba. He studied yellow fever with Walter Reed and remained in Cuba as a sanitary officer until 1909. From then until 1917, Kean was assistant to the Surgeon General of the Army, a position he had also held from 1902 to 1906. He was named Director General of Military Relief and Deputy Chief Surgeon of the American Expeditionary Force in France during World War I. General Kean retired from the army in 1924. A great friend and supporter of Reed's, he organized the Walter Reed Memorial Association.

From the description of Jefferson Randolph Kean papers, 1904-1950. (National Library of Medicine). WorldCat record id: 14309067

From the guide to the Jefferson Randolph Kean Papers, 1904-1950, (History of Medicine Division. National Library of Medicine)

Military surgeon and author.

From the description of Papers of Jefferson Randolph Kean [manuscript], 1906-1950. (University of Virginia). WorldCat record id: 647806600

From the description of Papers of Jefferson Randolph Kean, 1765-1938. (University of Virginia). WorldCat record id: 32960099

The U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission (1900-1901) was a board of physicians that the U.S. government formed in order to determine how yellow fever was transmitted between hosts. Ultimately, the commission's experiments in Cuba proved that mosquitoes transmit yellow fever--a discovery that would spur successful campaigns to control and eradicate yellow fever throughout much of the globe.

When Major Walter Reed and Acting Assistant Surgeons James Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, and Jesse Lazear gathered on the porch of the Columbia Barracks Hospital in June of 1900, they became the fourth successive board of U.S. medical officers to grapple with the appalling plague that was yellow fever.

The persistence of this disease across the Cuban archipelago and its periodic re-emergence along the coastlines and great river drainages of the Americas was taking countless thousands of lives. Lack of precise knowledge as to its cause and transmission had augmented yellow fever's extraordinarily high mortality rate and had given rise to quarantine regulations which constituted substantial impediments to efficient regional trade. Endemic in the tropics, yellow fever imposed high humanitarian and economic costs upon the entire region. Specialists regarded Cuba as one of the principal foci of the disease, and the island consequently attracted considerable attention from the medical sciences.

In 1879, one year after a devastating epidemic swept up the Mississippi valley from New Orleans, Tulane University Professor Stanford E. Chaille led the first investigatory commission to Havana, Rio de Janeiro, and the West Indies. The Chaille Commission remained in Havana three months, and its members -- including George Miller Sternberg, who became Surgeon General of the Army, and Juan Guiteras, later Director of Public Health for Havana -- consulted with Cuban scientist Carlos J. Finlay. They concluded that the causal agent for yellow fever was possibly a living entity in the atmosphere, an assertion which set Finlay on the path to the mosquito theory he developed in 1881.

Louis Pasteur's foundational and highly successful work in modern immunology in 1880 and 1881 gave a renewed impetus to investigations aimed at discovering the "yellow fever germ." Over the middle years of the 1880s several scientists advanced different theories, all readily refuted by bacteriological work Sternberg undertook in Brazil and Mexico in 1887 and again in Havana in 1888 and 1889. In 1897, Italian scientist Giuseppe Sanarelli argued that Bacillus icteroides was the culprit, and the following year a third scientific team sailed to Cuba for additional tests. Eugene Wasdin and Henry D. Geddings appeared to confirm Sanarelli's assertion, though Sternberg, by then Surgeon General, remained skeptical.

Despite Wasdin and Geddings' insistence, the B. icteroides theory garnered significant opposition. In fact, a few months before the third commission's report reached the public, Walter Reed and James Carroll -- Reed's assistant at the Columbian University (later George Washington University) bacteriology laboratories in Washington, D.C. -- published a thorough refutation of the icteroides proposal: the bacteria was not a unique cause of yellow fever, but a variety of the hog cholera bacillus, "a secondary invader in yellow fever," Reed determined, unrelated to its etiology. [1] Dispute continued, however, and when Sternberg organized the fourth investigatory board, he charged Reed and his associates to settle the B. icteroides question once and for all, then to proceed with analysis of other blood cultures and intestinal flora from yellow fever cases.

Reed and Carroll had considerable experience in bacteriological analysis, and, Sternberg reasoned, might well be able to find the specific agent of the disease. Aristides Agramonte, a Cuban scientist who had worked in Reed's lab at the Columbian University in 1898, was also an accomplished bacteriologist; he had identified B. icteroides in tissue samples from cases other than yellow fever, providing further evidence opposed to Sanarelli's thesis. Jesse Lazear, a scientist from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, had joined the Army Medical Corps to study tropical diseases at their point of origin; he received orders for Cuba in February 1900. Lazear impressed Reed with his abilities when the two men became acquainted in March. No doubt with Reed's advice, Sternberg assembled a crack team -- all experienced in scientific research, but each with interests as diverse as their temperaments. The mix of talent and personalities generated spectacular results.

What causes yellow fever? This simple, even obvious question had dictated yellow fever research for over two decades, and so it guided Reed in organizing the work of the commission. Bacillus icteroides and other bacteriological sampling dominated their work for the first months. "Reed and Carroll have been at that for a long time," Lazear wrote with some impatience to his wife on August 23, ". . . I would rather try to find the germ without bothering about Sanarelli." [2] Again and again, tests for the bacteria proved negative, and at the same time, perplexing cases of yellow fever were developing in the region. Agramonte and Reed investigated an epidemic at Pinar del Rio, 110 miles southwest of Havana; Lazear followed later to collect more specimens, and he also assessed the situation at Guanjay thirty miles southwest. To "my very great surprise," Reed admitted, the specific circumstances of the appearance and development of these cases gave strong evidence against the widely-accepted notion that the excreta of patients spread the disease. The theory of fomites -- infection from contaminated clothing and bedding -- and indeed even infection from airborne particles seemed altogether untrue. "At this stage of our investigation," Reed concluded, ". . . the time had arrived when the plan of our work should be radically changed." [3] The fundamental question underwent a subtle but critical transformation: from what causes yellow fever to what transmits it. A clear and accurate understanding of how the disease was spread would open a new avenue to its specific cause.

"Personally, I feel that only can experimentation on human beings serve to clear the field for further effective work," Reed stated to Surgeon General Sternberg, who concurred. [4] Evidence gathering around them pointed strongly to an intermediate host, and the Commission resolved to test Carlos Finlay's mosquito theory -- then not generally accepted -- on human volunteers. Nine times from August 11 to August 25, 1900, mosquitoes landed on the arms of volunteers and proceeded to feed. Nine times the results were negative. On August 27, Lazear placed a mosquito on the doubting Dr. Carroll, and four days later on William J. Dean, a soldier designated XY in the "Preliminary Note." [5] Both promptly developed yellow fever. Significantly, their mosquitoes had fed on cases within the initial three days of an attack and had been allowed to ripen for at least twelve days before the inoculations. Carroll vitiated the results of his experimental sickness by traveling off the post to Havana, a contaminated zone, even as Reed, ecstatic, wrote from Washington in a confidential letter: "Did the Mosquito do it?" [6] Dean's case seemed to prove it, since he claimed not to have left the garrison before becoming ill. Lazear also developed a case of yellow fever, almost certainly experimental in origin, though he never revealed the actual circumstances of his inoculation. His severe bout of fever took a fatal turn on September 25, 1900.

Nevertheless, these results could not have been more dramatic or convincing for the Commission. Reed quickly assembled a "Preliminary Note," which he presented to the annual meeting of the American Public Health Association in Indianapolis, Indiana, October 23, 1900. After initial consultations in Cuba with General Leonard Wood, military governor of the island, and with Surgeon General Sternberg in Washington, he returned to Cuba with authorization and funding to design and carry forward a fully defensible series of experiments. His aim was confirmation of the mosquito theory and invalidation of the long-held belief in fomites.

On open terrain beyond the precincts of Columbia Barracks -- the American military base just west of Havana near the adjacent suburban towns of Quemados and Marianao (also called Quemados de Marianao) -- Reed established the quarantined experimental station. Camp Lazear, as the Commission dedicated it, took form in the rolling fields of the Finca San Jose, on the farm of Dr. Ignacio Rojas, who leased the land to the Americans. Here Reed designed two small wood-frame buildings, each 14 by 20 feet, for the experimental work, and nearby raised a group of seven tents for the accommodation and support of the volunteers. The buildings faced each other across a small swale, about 80 yards apart, and stood 75 yards from the tent encampment. Building Number One, called the Infected Clothing Building, was a single room tightly constructed to contain as much foul air as possible. A small stove kept the temperature and humidity at tropical levels, and carefully attached screening secured the pair of doorways in a vestibule against intrusion by mosquitoes. Wooden blinds on two small sealed windows shielded the room from direct sun. Building Number Two, the Infected Mosquito Building, contained a principal room, divided into two sections by a floor-to-ceiling wire mesh screen. A door direct to the exterior let into one section, while a vestibule with a solid exterior door and pair of successive screened doors opened to the other, so configured to keep infected mosquitoes inside that section alone. The spare furnishings in both sections -- cots with bedding -- were steam sterilized. Windows exposed the entire room to the clean, steady ocean breezes and to sunlight. Like the doorways, they were carefully screened. A secondary room attached to the building but not communicating with the experimental spaces sheltered the small, heated laboratory where the Commission members raised and stored the mosquitoes to be used.

These two experimental buildings presented alternate environments -- one conspicuously clean and well ventilated, the other filthy and fetid. Contemporary theories of disease held that yellow fever developed in unclean conditions, and consequently much time and money had been devoted to sanitation projects. Workers steamed clothing, burned sulphur in ships' holds, and thoroughly scrubbed surfaces with disinfectant. In cases of severe epidemic, entire buildings presumed to be infected were set afire along with their contents. Thus the extraordinary -- and intentional -- paradox of the Commission's experimental regime: Reed expected yellow fever to develop not in the unsanitary environment, but in the one thought to be most healthful.

Camp Lazear went into quarantine the day of its completion, November 20, 1900, with a command of four immune and nine non-immune individuals, all save one U.S. Army personnel. Soon a group of recent Spanish immigrants to Cuba augmented the non-immune numbers, bringing the resident total to about twenty. Reed strictly controlled access to the camp and ordered regular temperature recording for each volunteer to eliminate any unanticipated source of infection and to identify the onset of any case of yellow fever as early as possible. As a result, non-immunes were barred from returning should they leave the precinct, and two of the Spaniards who developed intermittent fevers shortly after arrival were immediately transferred with their baggage to Columbia Barracks Hospital. The immune members of the detachment oversaw medical treatments and drove the teams of mules that pulled supply wagons and the ambulance. Experimentation did not begin until each volunteer had passed the incubation period for yellow fever in perfect health.

Reed took as much care with the design of the experimental protocol as he had with the configuration of the camp and its buildings. Each evening, the occupants of the infected clothing building unpacked trunks and boxes of bed linens and blankets, nightshirts and other clothing recently worn and soiled by cases from the wards of Columbia Barracks Hospital and Las Animas Hospital in Havana. These they shook out and spread around the room to permeate the atmosphere. The stench was overpowering. Yellow fever causes severe internal hemorrhaging, and its unfortunate victims often suffer from black vomit and other bloody discharges. One routine delivery proved so putrid the volunteers "retreated from the house," Reed stated. "They pluckily returned, however, within a short time, and spent the night as usual." [7] In two succeeding trials the protocol became progressively more daring, as the volunteers then wore the clothing and slept on the mattresses used by yellow fever patients, and finally put towels on their bedding smeared with blood drawn from cases in the early stages of an attack. Each morning, the volunteers carefully repacked the rank, encrusted materials into boxes and emerged to an adjacent tent where they spent the day quarantined from the rest of the company. Three trials of twenty days each involved seven men altogether, lead by Robert P. Cooke, a physician in the Army Medical Corps. None developed yellow fever.

The Commission's mosquito experiments proceeded in four series. First, Reed sought to demonstrate that mosquitoes of the variety Culex fasciata (later called Stegomyia fasciata, and later still Aedes aegypti ) could in fact transmit yellow fever, as Carlos J. Finlay had argued and the initial experiments at Camp Columbia strongly suggested. Here the Commission members simply applied infected mosquitoes contained in test tubes or jars to the skin of the initial volunteers. Success in these tests raised a number of questions, each one addressed in the subsequent series:

How could a building become infected? When does a mosquito develop the ability to transmit the disease? Over what length of time can a mosquito retain this capacity to infect?

The second series consequently employed the specialized "Infected Mosquito Building" to indicate how a structure could be considered infected with yellow fever. This experiment required two groups of volunteers, one to be inoculated and another to serve as controls. "Loaded" mosquitoes, as the men called them, were released into the screened section of Building Two -- on the side with the protected vestibule entry. One or more non-immune men then entered the opposite section of the room through the direct exterior door, and lay down on bunks adjacent to the wire mesh screen in the center of the room. Now the young man to be inoculated walked through the vestibule into the mosquito side of the room and proceeded to lie on a bunk adjacent to the wire screen separating him from the controls. The inoculation volunteer remained in the building for about twenty minutes -- enough time to suffer several mosquito bites -- he then exited to a quarantine tent outside. The controls spent the remainder of the evening and night in the uninfected side of the room, and indeed returned to sleep in the room for as many as eighteen more nights. As Reed stated, absence of yellow fever in the controls showed "that the essential factor in the infection of a building with yellow fever is the presence therein of [infected] mosquitoes," and nothing more. [8] The degree of sanitation, so long considered critical, was utterly irrelevant.

The third series of mosquito experiments confirmed what Henry Rose Carter, of the U.S. Public Health Service, called the "period of extrinsic incubation," [9] the length of time required for secondary cases of yellow fever to develop after an initial intrusion of the disease into a locality. In this series, a single volunteer underwent three successive inoculations by the same mosquitoes, each group of inoculations interrupted by a period of time equal in length to the typical incubation period of the disease in humans, about five days. In this manner, the volunteer's illness could be specifically attributed to a single inoculation group. The use of the same mosquitoes and the same volunteer concurrently demonstrated that no peculiar personal immunity was at play, since logic dictates that a person susceptible to yellow fever on day 17 of a mosquito's contamination -- as happened in the experiment -- could not have been immune to yellow fever on day 11 or day 4. It was thus only the mosquito's capacity to infect which changed, and that occurred no less than 11 days after contamination.

The duration of time over which these "fully ripened" mosquitoes remained infective comprised the fourth series of experiments. For this series the Commission kept alive a group of infected mosquitoes for as long as possible, and proceeded to inoculate three volunteers -- on the 39th, 51st, and 57th day after contamination. Each developed yellow fever. A fourth volunteer declined to be bitten on day 65, and the last two mosquitoes of the group, "deprived of further opportunity to feed on human blood" [10] expired on day 69 and day 71, clear evidence that even a sparsely populated region may retain the potential for new infections more than two months after the first appearance of the disease.

Although it went unrecorded in the published papers, Reed organized a supplemental experiment to test another species of mosquito. Culex pungens failed to transmit yellow fever to at least one volunteer and probably to a second. Reed's preliminary conclusions indicated that Culex fasciata was the only species capable of transmitting yellow fever. [11]

A last experimental regime involved subcutaneous injections of blood from positive cases of yellow fever to presumed non-immunes. Reed devised these tests to confirm the presence of the yellow fever agent in the blood of a victim during the first days of an attack, and, more importantly, to settle the Bacillus icteroides question. The same blood cultures which produced yellow fever in four volunteers also failed to grow any B. icteroides, conclusively invalidating Sanarelli's claim.

Altogether, the mosquito inoculations and the blood injections produced fourteen cases of yellow fever. All made a full recovery.

Notwithstanding the decisive medical victory -- as Reed declared, "aside from the antitoxin of Diptheria and Koch's discovery of the tubercle bacillus, it will be regarded as the most important piece of work, scientifically, during the 19th century" [12] -- success at Camp Lazear unfolded in its own time. Initially, Reed observed, "the results obtained at this station were not encouraging." [13] The first inoculations of four volunteers over a period of two weeks proved disconcertingly negative each time. Then, on December 5, 1900, private John R. Kissinger presented his arm to the mosquitoes, and late in the evening on December 8, suffered the first chills of "a well-marked attack of yellow fever." [14] Three more men in rapid succession fell victim to the insects -- Spanish volunteers Antonio Benigno, Nicanor Fernandez, and Vicente Presedo. The force of the conclusions was evident to everyone:

"It can readily be imagined," Reed empathetically and wryly described in his first presentation of the experiments, "that the concurrence of 4 cases of yellow fever in our small command of 12 non-immunes within the space of 1 week, while giving rise to feelings of exultation in the hearts of the experimenters, in view of the vast importance attaching to these results, might inspire quite other sentiments in the bosoms of those who had previously consented to submit themselves to the mosquito's bite. In fact, several of our good-natured Spanish friends who had jokingly compared our mosquitoes to 'the little flies that buzzed harmlessly about their tables,' suddenly appeared to lose all interest in the progress of science, and, forgetting for the moment even their own personal aggrandizement, incontinently severed their connection with Camp Lazear. Personally, while lamenting to some extent their departure, I could not but feel that in placing themselves beyond our control they were exercising the soundest judgment."

"In striking contrast," Reed continued, the anxiety of the fomites volunteers began to melt into relief. "[T]he countenances of these men, which had before borne the serious aspect of those who were bravely facing an unseen foe, suddenly took on the glad expression of 'schoolboys let out for a holiday,' and from this time their contempt for 'fomites' could not find sufficient expression. Thus illustrating once more, gentlemen, the old adage that familiarity, even with fomites, may breed contempt." [15]

The question of human experimentation was indeed a serious one -- unavoidable, in actuality, as Reed had stated the previous summer to Surgeon General Sternberg. When the Commission first considered a trial of Finlay's mosquito theory, Reed, Carroll, and Lazear agreed to experiment on themselves. Agramonte, a native Cuban, had acquired immunity as a child. Doubtless Finlay's experience of many unsuccessful inoculations communicated that positive results would not be forthcoming rapidly, so before the first series of inoculations began under Lazear's direction at Columbia Barracks, Reed left Cuba for Washington, where he completed a monumental report on typhoid fever among the army corps -- left unfinished by the sudden death of co-author Edward O. Shakespeare. Carroll and Lazear both sickened while Reed was in Washington, and Lazear, young and strong, had no reason to anticipate that his case would be fatal. Reed was shocked at Lazear's death, and because of his own age -- 49, a decade and a half older than Lazear and a dozen years older than Carroll -- he resolved not to inoculate himself when he returned to Cuba on October 4, 1900. The point had already been amply demonstrated, and only a rigidly controlled experimental regime would establish the necessary proof. Carroll, however, remained embittered about this for the remainder of his life, though he evidently never communicated his objections directly to Reed.

That initial series of mosquito inoculations was probably accomplished without formal documentation of informed consent. Indeed, the experiments may also have been carried forward without the full knowledge of the commanding officer of Camp Columbia, and Reed consequently shielded the identity of Private William J. Dean, the second positive experimental case, behind the pseudonym "XY" in the "Preliminary Note." No such potentially troublesome problems arose for the experimental series at Camp Lazear; Reed obtained prior support from all of the appropriate authorities in the military and the administration, even including the Spanish Consul to Cuba. With the advice of the Commission and others, he drafted what is now one of the oldest series of extant informed consent documents. The surviving examples are in Spanish with English translations, and were signed by volunteers Antonio Benigno and Vicente Presedo, and a third with the mark of Nicanor Fernandez, who was illiterate.

The documents take the form of a contract between individual volunteers and the Commission, represented by Reed. At least 25 years old, each volunteer explicitly consented to participate, and balanced the certainty of contracting yellow fever in the general population against the risks of developing an experimental case, followed by expert and timely medical care. The volunteers agreed to remain at Camp Lazear for the duration of the experiments, and as a reward for participation would receive $100 "in American gold," with an additional hundred-dollar supplement for contracting yellow fever. These payments could be assigned to a survivor, and the volunteers agreed to forfeit any remuneration in cases of desertion.

For the American participants no consent documents appear to survive, though in contemporary letters Reed assured his correspondents that the Commission obtained written consent from all the volunteers. The record of expenses for Camp Lazear -- maintained by Reed's friend and colleague in the medical corps, Jefferson Randolph Kean -- indicates that the same schedule of payments for participation and sickness applied to the Americans as well. Volunteers who participated in the fomites tests and in addition the later series of blood injections and the single trial of an alternative species of mosquito also earned $100 each plus the $100 supplement if yellow fever developed. Two Americans declined these gratuities, as Kean termed them, Dr. Robert P. Cooke, of the fomites tests, and John J. Moran, who had recently received an honorable discharge from the service, and was the only American civilian to participate. His was the fourth case of yellow fever to develop from mosquito inoculation. Moran eventually settled in Cuba, where he managed the Havana offices of the Sun Oil Company, and late in life became a close friend of Philip S. Hench. Together the two men rediscovered the site of Camp Lazear in 1940 -- Building Number One still intact -- and successfully lobbied the Cuban government to memorialize there the work of Finlay and the American Commission in the conquest of yellow fever.

Reed informally commemorated his own experiences at Camp Lazear by commissioning a group photograph, evidently taken there shortly before he left Cuba in February 1901. A more important event occurred on the sixth of that month when Reed presented the results of the Camp Lazear yellow fever experiments to a great ovation at the Pan-American Medical Congress in Havana. Three days later he set sail for the United States, and once landed, drafted the Congress paper as The Etiology of Yellow Fever -- An Additional Note, published immediately in the Journal of the American Medical Association . [16]

Though his correspondence intimates a great appreciation for Cuba, Reed never returned to the warm, sunny shores of the island freed of a dreadful plague. Carroll stayed behind at Camp Lazear through February to complete the last experimental series officially bearing the imprimatur of the Yellow Fever Commission, and returned to Washington soon after March first. [17] The Medical Corps retained the lease on Camp Lazear against the possibility of continuing experiments another season, and Carroll, in fact, returned to Havana in August 1901 for a final experimental series, though he did not make use of Camp Lazear. This work involved at least three volunteers at Las Animas Hospital, Havana, who submitted to blood injections. Carroll's assignment aimed at a greater understanding of the yellow fever agent, and he proved that blood drawn from active cases of yellow fever remained virulent even after passing through fine bacteria filters. In addition, by heating contaminated blood which had previously caused cases of yellow fever, Carroll rendered it non-infective -- thereby establishing that this filterable entity, though sub-microscopic, was demonstrably present in the bloodstream. Carroll wrapped up the series in October and returned home to stay. [18] In Cuba, J. Randolph Kean made the last rental payments to Signore Rojas on October 9, 1901, and Camp Lazear, for more than a generation, slipped out of the realm of memory.

Sources:

[1] Walter Reed and James Carroll, Bacillus Icteroides and Bacillus Cholerae Suis -- A Preliminary Note, Medical News (29 April 1899), reprinted in: United States Senate Document No. 822, Yellow Fever, A Compilation of Various Publications (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1911), p. 55. [2] Letter from Jesse W. Lazear to Mabel Houston Lazear, 23 August 1900, Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, accession number: 00341001. [3] Walter Reed, "The Propagation of Yellow Fever -- Observations Based on Recent Researches," in United States Senate Document No. 822, Yellow Fever A Compilation of Various Publications (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1911), p. 94. [4] Letter from Walter Reed to George M. Sternberg, 24 July 1900, Hench Reed Yellow Fever Collection, accession number: 02064001. [5] Walter Reed, James Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, Jesse W. Lazear, The Etiology of Yellow Fever -- A Preliminary Note, Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association Indianapolis, Indiana, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26 October 1900. [6] Letter from Walter Reed to James Carroll, 7 September 1900, Edward Hook Additions to the Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection: James Carroll Papers, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, accession number: 15312004. The originals of these letters remain in a private collection. [7] Walter Reed, James Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, The Etiology of Yellow Fever -- An Additional Note, Journal of the American Medical Association 36 (16 February 1901): 431-440, reprinted in: Senate Document No. 822, p. 84. [8] Walter Reed, The Propagation of Yellow Fever -- Observations Based on Recent Researches, in Senate Document No. 822, p. 99. [9] Henry Rose Carter, A Note on the Spread of Yellow Fever in Houses, Extrinsic Incubation, Medical Record 59 (15 June 1901) 24: 937. [10] Walter Reed, The Propagation of Yellow Fever -- Observations Based on Recent Researches, in Senate Document No. 822, p. 101. [11] Culex fasciata was reclassified shortly after the experiments as Stegomyia and later became Aedes aegypti. [12] Letter to from Walter Reed to Emilie Lawrence Reed, 9 December 1900, Hench Reed Collection, accession number: 02231001. [13] Walter Reed, The Propagation of Yellow Fever -- Observations Based on Recent Researches, in Senate Document No. 822, p. 97. [14] Walter Reed, The Propagation of Yellow Fever -- Observations Based on Recent Researches, in Senate Document No. 822, p. 98. [15] Walter Reed, The Propagation of Yellow Fever -- Observations Based on Recent Researches, in Senate Document No. 822, p. 99. [16] Please see note [7]. [17] The Commission reported these concluding experiments in: Walter Reed, James Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, Experimental Yellow Fever, American Medicine II (6 July 1901) 1: 15-23. [18] Walter Reed, James Carroll, The Etiology of Yellow Fever (A Supplemental Note), American Medicine III (22 February 1902) 8: 301-305.

Walter Reed (September 13, 1851 - November 22, 1902) was a U.S. Army physician who led the army's Yellow Fever Commission 1900 and 1901. Experiments conducted by the commission confirmed a theory that yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitoes--a discovery that led to the control and eradication of this disease across much of the globe. Reed would receive much of the credit for the work of the commission because of his role as its leader, and, long after his death in 1902, he would be widely celebrated as a heroic figure in the fields of public health and medical research.

Reed spent his first days in a small house which served as the parsonage for a Methodist congregation in Gloucester County, Virginia, where his father was minister.  Lemuel Sutton Reed and Pharaba White Reed welcomed young Walter into the family on September 13, 1851;  he was the youngest of their five children.  The Reeds moved to other Virginia parishes during Walter's childhood, and just after the close of the Civil War, transferred to the town of Charlottesville.  That move in 1866 placed Walter in the orbit of the University of Virginia, which he entered a year later at age sixteen under the care of his older brother Christopher, also a student at the University.  Reed attended two year-long sessions, the second devoted entirely to the medical curriculum, and he completed an M.D. degree on July 1, 1869, as one of the youngest students to graduate in the history of the medical school.

At that time the School of Medicine at the University offered little opportunity for direct clinical experience, so Reed subsequently enrolled at the Bellevue Hospital Medical College, in Manhattan, New York.  There he obtained a second M.D. degree in 1870.  Reed interned at a number of hospitals in the New York metropolitan area, including the Infants' Hospital on Randall's Island and the Brooklyn City Hospital.  In 1873, he assumed the position of assistant sanitary officer for the Brooklyn Board of Health.  The large and diverse population of New York, with its many immigrant communities and dense, tenement housing, provided countless medical cases to treat and study;  these served to expose Reed to the vital importance of public health, and developed in him a lifelong interest in the field.  Yet the frenetic life of the great cities began to pall after a few years: "Here the ever bustling day is crowded into the busy night; nor can we draw the line of separation between the two,"[1] he wrote to Emilie Lawrence, of Murfreesboro, North Carolina, later to become Mrs. Walter Reed.  Their courtship letters reveal much of his maturing character, interests, and philosophy of life.  Increasing responsibilities with the Board of Health precluded opening a private practice, and Reed's youth proved a barrier in a culture given to offering respect more to the appearance of maturity than to its actual demonstration. Reed consequently resolved to join the Army Medical Corps, both for the professional opportunities it offered immediately and for the modest financial security it could provide to a young man without independent means.  He passed the qualifying examinations in January 1875 and proceeded to his first assignment at the military base on Willet's Point, New York Harbor.

Reed remained in the Medical Corps for the rest of his life, spending many years of the '70s, '80s, and early '90s at difficult postings in the American West.  The first of these -- to the Arizona Territory -- began in the late spring of 1876, and indeed hurried along his wedding to Emilie Lawrence, on April 25, shortly before his departure.  She joined him the following November, and bore two children at frontier posts, a son Walter Lawrence and a daughter Emilie, called Blossom.

Reed's other western assignments included forts in Nebraska, Dakota Territory, and Minnesota, with two eastern interludes at Baltimore, Maryland and another at Mount Vernon Barracks, Alabama.  During the second of these tours in Baltimore -- over the 1890-1891 academic year -- Reed completed advanced coursework in pathology and bacteriology in the Johns Hopkins University Hospital Pathology Laboratory.  When he returned from his last western appointment in 1893, Reed joined the faculty of the Army Medical School in Washington, D.C., where he held the professorship of Bacteriology and Clinical Microscopy.  He also became curator of the Army Medical Museum and joined the faculty of the Columbian University in Washington (later the George Washington University).  In addition, Reed maintained close ties with professor William Welch and other leading lights in the scientific community he had come to know at Hopkins a few years earlier.

Beyond his teaching responsibilities for the Army and the Columbian University programs, Reed actively pursued medical research projects.  A bibliography of his publications finds entries from 1892 to the year of his untimely death a decade later, and the subjects he investigated range from erysipelas to cholera, typhoid, malaria, and yellow fever, among others.[2]   In 1896, a research trip to investigate an outbreak of smallpox took him to Key West, and there he developed a close friendship with Jefferson Randolph Kean, a fellow Virginian and colleague in the Medical Corps ten years his junior.  When Reed traveled to Cuba in 1899 to study typhoid in the army encampments of the U.S. forces, Kean was already there, and Kean was still in Cuba when Reed returned as the head of the Army board charged by Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg to examine tropical diseases including yellow fever.  Kean and his first wife Louise were great supporters of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission's work, and Kean in fact served as quartermaster for the famous series of experiments at Camp Lazear.  After the dramatic and conclusive success of those experiments, Kean actively -- though unsuccessfully -- promoted Reed's candidacy for Surgeon General.

Reed continued to speak and publish on yellow fever after his return from Cuba in 1901, receiving honorary degrees from Harvard and the University of Michigan in recognition of his seminal work.  In November 1902, Reed developed what had been for him recurring gastro-intestinal trouble.  This time, however, his appendix ruptured, and surgery came too late to save him from the peritonitis which developed.  He died on November 23, 1902, almost two years to the day from the opening of Camp Lazear and the stunning experimental victory there.  Kean remained a champion of his deceased friend's role in the conquest of yellow fever.  He organized the Walter Reed Memorial Association, to provide support for Reed's family and to build a suitable memorial, and was instrumental in lobbying the United States Congress to establish the Yellow Fever Roll of Honor.  In 1929, Congress mandated the annual publication of the Roll in the Army Register, and struck a series Congressional Gold Medals saluting the Commission members and the young Americans who bravely suffered experimental yellow fever a generation before.

Sources:

[1] Letter from Walter Reed to Emilie Lawrence, 18 July 1874, Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, accession number: 01605001. [2] The bibliography of Reed's scientific papers may be found in: Howard Atwood Kelly, Walter Reed and Yellow Fever (New York: McClure, Phillips and Co., 1906), pp. 281-283. Kelly's complete biography of Reed is contained on this Web site.

Jesse William Lazear (May 2, 1866 - September 26, 1900) was a physician who was a member of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission in 1900. Lazear's death from yellow fever at the outset of the commission's work in Cuba would lead to his elevation as a martyr for medical science in the eyes of many during the twentieth century.

"I rather think I am on the track of the real germ," Jesse W. Lazear wrote his wife from Cuba on September 8, 1900.[1] Seventeen days later, the fulminating case of yellow fever Lazear had contracted just over a week after writing Mabel H. Lazear suddenly ended the young scientist's life. He was 34 years old. Unlike so many other yellow fever fatalities, however, this one would lead to a direct and highly successful assault on the disease itself. Yellow fever's ascendancy, endemic in Cuba, was about to be undermined.

Lazear had reported to Camp Columbia, Cuba in February 1900 for duty as an acting assistant surgeon with the U. S. Army Corps stationed on the island. Here he undertook bacteriological study of tropical diseases, particularly malaria and yellow fever, and in May he was named to the Army board charged with "pursuing scientific investigations with reference to the infectious diseases prevalent on the island of Cuba."[2]

These orders placed him officially in the company of Walter Reed, James Carroll, and Aristides Agramonte -- the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission -- though Lazear had already met Reed the preceding March on a project to evaluate the efficacy of electrozone, a disinfectant made from seawater collected off the Cuban coast. While Reed was in Cuba that March, Lazear discussed with him the recent discovery of British scientist Sir Ronald Ross concerning the mosquito vector for malaria. At Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where he was first a medical resident and later in charge of the clinical laboratory, Lazear had followed Ross's accomplishments with great interest, and pursued field work and experimentation on the Anopheles mosquito with fellow Hopkins scientist William S. Thayer. Lazear was thus the only member of the Commission who had experience with mosquito work, and was consequently the most open to the possible verity of Cuban scientist Carlos Juan Finlay's theory of mosquito transmission for yellow fever.

The record is apparently silent as to when Lazear first visited Finlay. Certainly by late June Lazear was beginning to grow mosquito larvae acquired from Finlay's laboratory, the first specimens brought to him by Henry Rose Carter, of the United States Public Health Service.[3] Not long after arriving in Cuba Lazear met Carter, whose own observations on yellow fever strongly suggested an intermediate host in the spread of the disease. However, Army Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg, who organized the Yellow Fever Commission, first charged the board members to investigate the relationship of Bacillus icteroides to yellow fever -- proposed by the Italian Scientist Giuseppe Sanarelli as the actual cause of the disease. "Dr. Reed had been in the old discussion over Sanarelli's bacillus and he still works on that subject," Lazear wrote his wife in July, "I am not all interested in it but want to do work which may lead to the discovery of the real organism."[4] Soon he would have the opportunity. The relatively quick failure of the Bacillus icteroides inquiry opened the door to what became the ground-breaking mosquito work, and Lazear was well placed to begin.

The project started in earnest on August 1, 1900. In a small pocket notebook Lazear noted the preparatory work of raising and infecting mosquitoes, and subsequently recorded the series of eleven experimental inoculations made from the 11th to the 31st of August, the last two producing cases of full-blown yellow fever. These two positive cases developed from mosquitoes allowed to ripen over a period of 12 days, and this was Lazear's crucial discovery. The epidemiological pattern was thus entirely consistent with Carter's observations of a delay between the primary and secondary outbreaks of yellow fever in an epidemic, and, in addition, explained why Finlay's experiments had been largely unsuccessful -- he had not waited long enough before inoculating his subjects.

Although Lazear never directly admitted to experimenting on himself, when Reed reviewed Lazear's sketchy notations he evidently found entries strongly suggesting Lazear's case was not accidental, as officially reported. Unfortunately, the little notebook so crucial to the preparation of the Commission's famous initial paper, The Etiology of Yellow Fever -- A Preliminary Note [5], vanished from Reed's Washington office after his own untimely death in 1902. Still, Lazear's invaluable contribution to the Commission's victory was widely recognized and elicited tributes from many quarters: "He was a splendid, brave fellow," Reed said of his young colleague, " and I lament his loss more than words can tell; but his death was not in vain- His name will live in the history of those who have benefited humanity." [6] "His death was a sacrifice to scientific research of the highest character," stated General Leonard Wood, military Governor of Cuba.[7] "Your husband was a martyr in the noblest of causes," Dr. L. O. Howard wrote to Mabel Lazear, "and I am proud to have known him. . . . His work contributed towards one of the greatest discoveries of the century, the results of which will be of invaluable benefit to mankind."[8] And so they were. Though Lazear's one-year-old son and newborn daughter never knew their father, they grew up in a world liberated -- almost in its entirety -- from the disease that killed him.

[1] Letter fragment from Jesse W. Lazear to Mabel Houston Lazear, 8 September 1900, Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, accession number: 00344001.

Sources:

[2] Military Orders for Walter Reed, James Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, and Jesse W. Lazear, 24 May 1900, Hench Reed Collection, accession number 02019001. [3] "Conversation between Drs. Carter, Thayer, and Parker," 1924, Henry Rose Carter Papers, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, Box 1. [4] Letter fragment from Jesse W. Lazear to Mabel Houston Lazear, 15 July 1900, Hench Reed Collection, accession number: 00334001. [5] Walter Reed, James Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, Jesse W. Lazear, The Etiology of Yellow Fever -- A Preliminary Note, Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association Indianapolis, Indiana, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26 October 1900. [6] Letter from Walter Reed to Emilie Lawrence Reed, 6 October 1900, Hench Reed Collection, accession number: 02135001. [7] Letter from Leonard Wood to the Adjutant-General, United States Army, November 1900, Hench Reed Collection, accession number: 00375002. [8] Letter from Leland Ossian Howard to Mabel Houston Lazear, 7 February 1901, Hench Reed Collection, accession number: 00388001.

Henry Rose Carter (August 25, 1852 - September 14, 1925) was a prominent physician in the U.S. Public Health Service who was a leading authority in the transmission and control of tropical diseases, particularly yellow fever and malaria. During his long career as a sanitarian, Carter undertook campaigns to investigate and control the spread of tropical diseases in Cuba, the Panama Canal Zone, the Southeastern United States, and Peru.

Like Walter Reed and Jefferson Randolph Kean, Henry Rose Carter was a native Virginian and a graduate of the University of Virginia. Carter obtained a civil engineering degree from Virginia in 1873 and also undertook post-graduate work in mathematics and applied chemistry the next year. Subsequently, however, Carter's interests turned towards medicine, and he completed a medical degree at the University of Maryland in 1879. The same year Assistant Surgeon Carter joined the Marine Hospital Service -- later the United States Public Health Service -- and the young surgeon rose steadily through the ranks, ultimately attaining the position of Assistant Surgeon General in 1915.

Carter's initial assignments with the Hospital Service placed him at the center of the yellow fever maelstrom. In 1879 he was detailed to Memphis and other Southern cities, then in the throes of a second year of devastating epidemics. Here began, as his colleague T. H. D. Griffitts observed, Carter's "lifelong interest in the epidemiology and control of yellow fever."[1] After several years of clinical practice in various Marine hospitals, Carter resumed a direct confrontation with yellow fever when his orders for duty with the Gulf Coast Maritime Quarantine assigned him to Ship Island, Mississippi, in 1888. Here and at subsequent quarantine station postings around the Gulf, he quietly championed a thorough review and rationalization of quarantine policies, with a view toward establishing uniform regulation, more thorough disinfection of vessels, and minimized interference with naval commerce. Crucial to the success of these activities was Carter's attention to the incubation period of yellow fever, which his on-site observations indicated to vary between 5 and 7 days. At the time the official literature stated with far less precision a variance of between 1 and 14 days; Carter's work consequently greatly increased the efficiency and effectiveness of quarantine operations.

Nevertheless, yellow fever continued to menace the temperate coastline of the United States, and Carter ably directed the Health Service's epidemiological control efforts in numerous threatened regions. In conjunction with this sanitary work for the 1898 season, Carter made detailed notes on the development of yellow fever at Orwood and Taylor, Mississippi. The isolation of these communities enabled him to identify more reliably the phenomenon of a delay between the initial cases of yellow fever in a locality and the subsequent appearance of secondary infection -- a delay two to four times longer than the incubation period of the disease in an infected person. Carter called this interval between the primary and secondary cases "the period of extrinsic incubation," and he defined its "usual limits . . . [as ranging] from ten to seventeen days."[2]

Before he was able to publish his conclusions, Carter took the helm of the quarantine service in war-time Cuba. There, in 1900, he met U. S. Army Yellow Fever Commission member Jesse Lazear. Carter had finally arranged for his paper's publication that year in the New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, and gave a draft to Lazear. "If these dates are correct," Carter later recalled Lazear saying, "it spells a living host."[3] The theory of mosquito transmission long advanced by Cuban scientist Carlos J. Finlay began to seem more likely. And indeed it was. The Commission's experiments in 1900-1901 irrefutably proved the mosquito vector and established the extrinsic incubation period at twelve days. Shortly after these successes Reed saluted Carter, "I know of no one more competent to pass judgment on all that pertains to the subject of yellow fever. You must not forget that your own work in Mississippi did more to impress me with the importance of an intermediate host than everything else put to-gether."[4]

Carter's long and distinguished sanitary career took him to the Panama Canal Zone in 1904, where he served as Chief Quarantine Officer and Chief of Hospitals for five years. He undertook detailed investigations and control measures of malaria in North Carolina and elsewhere in the South, and became a founder of the National Malaria Committee. With the support of the Rockefeller Foundation International Health Board, he undertook additional investigation and control measures for yellow fever in Central and South America. His expertise recommended him to the Peruvian government, which named Carter Sanitary Advisor in 1920-1921. Health problems at the end of his life compelled Carter to withdraw from active fieldwork, though he remained a highly valued consultant to the Health Board and a much-beloved and respected teacher for a new generation of sanitarians. Carter closed his career researching and writing the manuscript that his daughter Laura Armistead Carter edited and published posthumously in 1931: Yellow Fever: An Epidemiological and Historical Study of its Place of Origin. [5]

Sources:

[1] T. H. D. Griffitts, Henry Rose Carter: The Scientist and the Man, Southern Medical Journal 32 (August 1939) 8: 842. [2] Henry Rose Carter, A Note on the Spread of Yellow Fever in Houses, Extrinsic Incubation, Medical Record 59 (15 June 1901) 24: 937. [3] "Conversation between Drs. Carter, Thayer, and Parker," 1924, Henry Rose Carter Papers, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, Box 1. [4] Letter from Walter Reed to Henry Rose Carter, 26 February 1901, Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, accession number: 02447001. [5] Carter, Henry Rose. Yellow Fever: An Epidemiological and Historical Study of its Place of Origin. Baltimore: The Williams and Wilkins Company, 1931.

Jefferson Randolph Kean (June 27, 1860 - September 4, 1950) was a U.S. Army physician who was a leading authority in sanitation, public health, and tropical diseases. Later in his career, Kean would become widely recognized for his role in organizing and administering medical services for the U.S. armed forces during World War I.

"He possessed one of the keenest, most scholarly minds I've ever encountered," recalled Nobel Prize winner Philip S. Hench of Jefferson Randolph Kean. [1] Kean and Hench shared an abiding interest in the work of the United States Army Yellow Fever Commission -- Kean, as a contemporary and supporter, and Hench, as a scholar and scientist intent on accurate historical documentation. On the advice of yellow fever experiment volunteer John J. Moran, Hench first wrote Kean in 1939. From that initial contact developed a close friendship which would last for the remainder of their lives. Kean entrusted Hench not only with numerous period documents, including original letters, accounts, fever charts, and other items, but also with the freely-given counsel and insight of a trusted friend.

Like Walter Reed and Henry Rose Carter before him, Jefferson Randolph Kean was an alumnus of the University of Virginia, completing the medical program there in 1883. Kean joined the U.S. Army Medical Corps in 1884, and after forty years in the service, retired with the rank of Colonel. Congress awarded him a promotion to Brigadier General, retired, in 1930. The early years of Kean's career passed in medical postings in the American West, and no doubt offered him experiences similar to those of Walter Reed, whom he met not on the frontier, but in Florida in 1896. Kean became an expert in tropical diseases and sanitation during his five-year assignment in the Florida tropics, an expertise which served him well over two terms of service later in Cuba. During the Spanish-American War and subsequent U. S. occupation of Cuba, Kean was Chief Surgeon for the Department of Havana, then Superintendent of the Department of Charities -- from 1898 to 1902. After a four-year interlude as an assistant to the Surgeon General in Washington, D.C., Kean again returned to Cuba as an advisor to the Department of Sanitation from 1906-1909.

Kean himself stated: "Reed and I were good friends before the Yellow Fever Board came to Cuba in June 1900, and [Reed] located himself at Marianao, 8 miles S. W. of Havana," to be within the medical and administrative jurisdiction overseen by Kean. [2] The Chief Surgeon did indeed offer significant assistance, and was an early convert to Carlos Finlay's mosquito theory of transmission, which the Yellow Fever Board's experiments ultimately proved true in the late autumn and winter of 1900-1901. As early as October 13, 1900 -- after the Board's preliminary work, but before the final convincing demonstrations -- Kean issued "Circular No. 8," concerning the latest scholarship on the mosquito vector for disease. [3] The circular contained a set of instructions for the entire command on mosquito eradication. Kean subsequently served as quartermaster and financial administrator for the famous series of yellow fever experiments at Camp Lazear and, for the rest of his life, Kean remained a strong proponent of the Commission's conclusions. He worked tirelessly not only to apply them in the field, but also to accord proper public recognition to the Commission's work.

In addition to his career as a sanitarian, Kean organized the department of military relief of the American Red Cross, and during World War One served as Chief of the U. S. Ambulance Service with the French Army and Deputy Chief Surgeon of the American forces. France named him an Officier de la Légion d'Honneur in recognition for these services. Cuban authorities as well offered Kean recognition with the grand cross of the Order of Merit Carlos J. Finlay, and he received both a Distinguished Service Medal from the United States government and the Gorgas Medal from the Association of Military Surgeons. For a decade after his retirement from active duty, Kean edited this last organization's medical journal, The Military Surgeon, and served on the Surgeon General's editorial board for the multi-volume history of the medical department in World War One. A great-grandson of Thomas Jefferson, Kean also took a seat with the government commission established to build the Jefferson Memorial in Washington, D.C. He held charter membership in the Walter Reed Memorial Association, and remained active in its affairs until his death in 1950.

Sources:

[1] Telegram from Philip Showalter Hench and Mary Hench to Cornelia Knox Kean, September 5, 1950, Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, accession number: 06501173. [2] Letter from Jefferson Randolph Kean to Philip Showalter Hench, October 31, 1939, Hench Reed Yellow Fever Collection, accession number: 06282022. [3] Military Orders to Commanding Officers, October 15, 1900, Hench Reed Yellow Fever Collection, accession number: 02140001.

Philip Showalter Hench (February 28, 1896 - March 30, 1965) was a U.S. physician who in 1950 was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine for his role in the discovery of the hormone cortisone. In addition to his medical research, Hench spent almost three decades of his life studying the history of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission and became a leading authority in the subject.

Philip Showalter Hench was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the son of Jacob Bixler Hench and Clara Showalter. After attending local schools, Hench entered Lafayette College and graduated from the school 1916 with a Bachelor of Arts. Hench completed his medical degree at the University of Pittsburgh in 1920, and subsequently entered a residency program at St. Francis Hospital, Pittsburgh. His association with the Mayo Clinic began in 1921 as a fellow at the institution. Two years later he would become an assistant at the clinic, and then, in 1926, he would be made the head of its Department of Rheumatic Diseases After pursuing post-graduate study in Germany in 1928-1929, Hench obtained a Masters of Science in Internal Medicine at the University of Minnesota in 1931, and a Doctor of Science degree from Lafayette College in 1940. Hench remained for the duration of his career at the Mayo Clinic, where his life-long passion for meticulous research and analysis brought him the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1950, which he shared with Edward C. Kendall and Tadeus Reichstein, for the discovery of cortisone.

The same persistence and determination present in his professional life is also evident in Hench's research on the U. S. Army Yellow Fever Commission's famous experiments. "As a physician particularly interested in medical history," he stated to experiment volunteer John J. Moran in 1937, "I have been long interested in the story of the yellow fever work in John J. Moran, Ralph C. Hutchison, Havana." [1] So began a remarkable odyssey. At the request of his friend Ralph Cooper Hutchison, then president of Washington and Jefferson College, Hench had written Moran to gather information for the dedication of the College's new chemistry building, named for Commission member and former Washington and Jefferson student Jesse W. Lazear. Hench also began a correspondence with another of the yellow fever experiment's original volunteers, John R. Kissinger. Moran's and Kissinger's recollections proved so intriguing that Hench initially offered to edit and publish them. However, in the course of his research Hench discovered that much general information on the topic was inaccurate. Conflicting assertions concerning the participants and unverified claims by medical and governmental authorities in the United States and Cuba -- often politically motivated -- clouded interpretation of the facts. "May I suggest," Moran consequently urged in 1938, "that a clearing up of the REED-FINLAY-CONQUEST-OF-YELLOW-FEVER, or an effort to do so, on your part, is a task far more pressing than publishing the Kissinger-Moran stories or memoirs." [2] Hench resolved to document every aspect of the "Conquest of Yellow-Fever" and to write a much needed accurate and comprehensive history.

For the next two decades, Hench tirelessly combed through public archive collections and personal papers in the United States and Cuba. He met and interviewed surviving participants of the experiments and others associated with the project, as well as family members of the Yellow Fever Commission. He sought out physicians and scientists who had worked with the principal players or who had applied the results in the campaign to eradicate yellow fever. He identified and photographed sites associated with the yellow fever story, and he successfully petitioned politicians in the United States and Cuba to commemorate the work. In the process, Hench became the trusted friend and advisor of many of these same individuals, and they, in turn, presented him with much of the surviving original material for safekeeping.

In short, Hench came to be the world's expert on the yellow fever story and the steward of thousands of original letters and documents. His premature death at age 69 found him still hoping to uncover important missing evidence, his book unwritten. Hench's widow Mary Kahler Hench gave his yellow fever collection to the University of Virginia, Walter Reed's alma mater, and this extensive personal archive forms the most detailed and accurate record available on the Conquest of Yellow Fever.

Sources:

[1] Letter from Philip S. Hench to John J. Moran, 6 July 1937, Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, Department of Historical Collections and Services, accession number: 03419001. [2] Letter from John J. Moran to Philip S. Hench, 30 October 1938, Hench Reed Yellow Fever Collection, accession number: 03476001.

From the guide to the Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, circa 1800-circa 1998, bulk 1863-1974, (Historical Collections, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, University of Virginia)

Archival Resources
Role Title Holding Repository
creatorOf Hume, Edgar Erskine, 1889-1952. The military surgeon [manuscript], 1941 September. University of Virginia. Library
referencedIn Dulaney, Polly Venable,. Papers of the Minor and Venable families, 1846-1918. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Shackelford family. Papers of the Shackelford family, 1911-1919, 1943-1945. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Letters to Mary E. Lazenby [manuscript], 1935-1950. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Correspondence between Gen. Jefferson Randolph Kean and Harry Clemons [manuscript] : subjects included are the descendants of Thomas Jefferson and the work of Walter Reed and William C. Gorgas against yellow fever, 1935-1942. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Shackelford, Virginius Randolph, 1885-1949. Additional correspondence of Virginius Randolph Shackelford [manuscript], ca.1930-1948. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Jefferson Randolph Kean papers, 1904-1950. National Library of Medicine
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Papers of Jefferson Randolph Kean, 1765-1938. University of Virginia. Library
referencedIn Views of "Nydrie" and members of the Kean-Forsyth-Hill family [manuscript], ca.1879-1930. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Papers of Jefferson Randolph Kean [manuscript], 1906-1950. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Regulations for the practice of pharmacy in Cuba : [Washington, D.C.?] / United States Surgeon-General's Office, 1909. National Library of Medicine
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Papers of Jefferson Randolph Kean [manuscript] 1881-1935. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Papers of Jefferson Randolph Kean [manuscript] 1897-1950. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Papers of Jefferson Randolph Kean [manuscript] 1890-1950. University of Virginia. Library
referencedIn United States Surgeon-General's Office Correspondence, 1903-1907 History of Medicine Division. National Library of Medicine
creatorOf Jefferson Randolph Kean Papers, 1904-1950 History of Medicine Division. National Library of Medicine
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Papers and correspondence of Gen. Kean's army career and tenure as Sanitary Advisor to the Cuban Provisional Government regarding Order of Indian Wars, Seventh Army Corps, 1898-1900 [manuscript] 1898-1949. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Anderson, Jefferson Randolph, 1861-1950. Correspondence : chiefly with Jefferson Randolph Kean, 1922-1927. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Hill, Robert,. Papers of the Hill family [manuscript] 1794-1798, 1818-1827. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. United States Surgeon-General's Office correspondence, 1903-1907. National Library of Medicine
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Letter to Harry Clemons, 4 May 1942 [manuscript] : Memorandum concerning the base hospitals and other medical units organized under the Red Cross in 1916, 1916-1942. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Papers, professional and personal, of this long-time Army doctor [manuscript] (1905) 1925-1949. University of Virginia. Library
referencedIn Reed, Walter, 1851-1902. Correspondence of Drs. Philip S. Hench and Vernon W. Lippard regarding the placing of a wreath by Dr. Hench honoring Walter Reed, John J. Moran, and Major Jefferson R. Kean at the dedication in Havana, Cuba of the "Camp Lazear National Monument, site of the successful experiment against yellow fever" [manuscript] 1952-1953. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Papers pertaining to Kean's receipt of the Gorgas medal [manuscript], 1900-1924. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Anderson, J. Randolph,. Monticello graveyard papers [manuscript], 1922-1927. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Additional papers of the late Brigadier General including 100 letters from Innes Young, 1938-1949 [manuscript] 1898-1949. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Barbee, David Rankin, 1874-1958. Papers of the Kean family [manuscript], 1859-1951. University of Virginia. Library
referencedIn Hench, Philip Showalter, 1896-1965. Papers of Philip Showalter Hench [manuscript] 1903-64. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Correspondence between Harry Clemons and General Jefferson Randolph Kean: [manuscript], 1943-1945. University of Virginia. Library
referencedIn Andrews, Marietta Minnigerode, 1869-1931. Papers of Marietta Minnigerode Andrews, 1923-1927. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Kean, Jefferson Randolph, 1860-1950. Correspondence with Harry Clemons [manuscript] 1943-1944. University of Virginia. Library
referencedIn Clemons, Harry, 1879-1968. Letters to Roy Land [manuscript], 1940-1952. University of Virginia. Library
creatorOf Hench, Philip S., 1896-1965. Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, 1806-1995, bulk 1863-1974 Historical Collections, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, University of Virginia
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associatedWith Borrell, Jose person
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associatedWith Briggs, Walter De Blois, 1901- person
associatedWith Briggs, Walter M. person
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associatedWith Bullock, Helen Duprey, 1904-1995 person
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associatedWith Burr, Aaron, 1756-1836 person
associatedWith Bushnell, George E. (George Ensign), 1853-1924 person
associatedWith Bustinza, F. person
associatedWith Butcher, Howard, Jr. person
associatedWith Butler, Benjamin F. (Benjamin Franklin), 1795-1858 person
associatedWith Butler, John, 1728-1794 person
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associatedWith Eckman, James Russell, 1908-1987 person
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associatedWith Espinosa y G. Caceres, Luis. person
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associatedWith Finlay, Carlos Juan, 1833-1915 person
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associatedWith Fishback, Mary person
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associatedWith Fisher, Lawrence Machemar, 1886- person
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associatedWith Fitzpatrick, Elizabeth person
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associatedWith Flynn, Raymond P. person
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associatedWith Fontaine, Louise person
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associatedWith Gawne, Jane L. person
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associatedWith Goodale, George L. person
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associatedWith Halliday, Dean person
associatedWith Hall, Mrs. John A. person
associatedWith Hall, Mrs. John R person
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associatedWith Lazear, William L. person
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associatedWith Leathers, Waller S. (Waller Smith), 1874-1946 person
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associatedWith Leikind, Morris C. (Morris Cecil), 1905- person
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associatedWith Logan, R. Elwood person
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associatedWith Lopez, Julian Zunzunequi person
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associatedWith Love, Albert G. (Albert Gallatin), 1877- person
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associatedWith Lower, Margaret H. person
associatedWith Lucy, Anne person
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associatedWith Lundeen, Ernest person
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associatedWith Lybarger, Nancy person
associatedWith Lynch, Delia A. person
associatedWith Lyons, Bertha L. person
associatedWith Lyster, Theodore C. person
associatedWith Lyster, Winifred person
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associatedWith Magoon, Charles Edward, 1861-1920 person
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associatedWith Malaret, Blanca person
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associatedWith Mansfelde, A.S. von person
associatedWith Marietta, S.M. person
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associatedWith Mason, E. C. (Edwin C.) person
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associatedWith Mayer, Edgar, 1889- person
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associatedWith Maynard, Edwin P. person
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associatedWith Medgo, Arthur V. person
associatedWith Mellon, Andrew W. (Andrew William), 1855-1937 person
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associatedWith Patterson, Robert U. person
associatedWith Paul, John R. (John Rodman), 1893-1971 person
associatedWith Pauncefote, Julian, 1828-1902 person
associatedWith Peabody, Elizabeth person
associatedWith Peabody, James Edward, 1869- person
associatedWith Peak, Mayme Ober person
associatedWith Peddicord, Harper person
associatedWith Pemberton, Anne person
associatedWith Pena, Esteban Valderrama y person
associatedWith Penhallow, D.P. person
associatedWith Penrose, Mary L. person
associatedWith Peraza, Fermin person
associatedWith Pergassa, Antonio person
associatedWith Perkins, R.T. person
associatedWith Perlitt, J.J. person
associatedWith Perry, James Clifford, 1864- person
associatedWith Peru corporateBody
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associatedWith Phalen, James Matthew, 1872- person
associatedWith Phillips, R. Hart (Ruby Hart) person
associatedWith Pichardo, D. Esteban T. person
associatedWith Pierce, C. C. (Claude Connor), 1878-1944 person
associatedWith Pilcher, James Evelyn, 1857-1911 person
associatedWith Pillsbury, E. S. (Evans Searle), 1839- person
associatedWith Pinbán, Lydia E. person
associatedWith Pinto, A.S. person
associatedWith Pogolotti, Luis B. person
associatedWith Polier, Justine Wise, 1903-1987 person
associatedWith Polley, Howard Freeman, 1913- person
associatedWith Poore, C.G. person
associatedWith Pope, Alton Stackpole, 1886- person
associatedWith Porter, Joseph Y. person
associatedWith Postell, William Dosité, 1908-1982 person
associatedWith Pothier, Oliver L. person
associatedWith Pou, James H. (James Hinton), 1861-1935 person
associatedWith Price, Marshall L. person
associatedWith Purdy, Theodore M. person
associatedWith Quayle, Daniel person
associatedWith Quinn, S.J. person
associatedWith Rake, Paul F. person
associatedWith Ramos, Domingo F., 1884-1966? person
associatedWith Ramsey, George H. (George Herbert), 1891- person
associatedWith Randall, Harold M. person
associatedWith Randin, Jose person
associatedWith Randolph, F.F. person
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associatedWith Ransom, Brayton Howard, 1879-1925 person
associatedWith Rappleye, Willard C. (Willard Cole), 1892-1976 person
associatedWith Rath, Frederick L. person
associatedWith Ravenel, Mazÿck Porcher person
associatedWith Raymond, F.N. person
associatedWith Read, Florence Matilda person
associatedWith Recio, Alberto person
associatedWith Redd, H. Carter person
associatedWith Reed, Christopher person
associatedWith Reed, Emilie Lawrence, 1856-1950 person
associatedWith Reed, Emilie M. (Blossom) person
associatedWith Reed, Fannie person
associatedWith Reed, James Clayton person
associatedWith Reed, Landon person
associatedWith Reed, Walter, 1851-1902. person
associatedWith Reed, Walter L. person
associatedWith Reed, W.O. person
associatedWith Reeve, Roy M. person
associatedWith Repp, Mrs. R.M. person
associatedWith Reynolds, Frederick P. person
associatedWith Rhoads, M.A. person
associatedWith Rice, Lee person
associatedWith Rice, Paul North, 1888-1967 person
associatedWith Rice, Thurman B. (Thurman Brooks), 1888- person
associatedWith Richards, B.M. person
associatedWith Richardson, Louisa C. person
associatedWith Richards, W.S. person
associatedWith Richards, W. V. person
associatedWith Riley, Muryle person
associatedWith Ritchey, Richard B. person
associatedWith Rittenhouse, B.F. person
associatedWith Riva, Isabel person
associatedWith Rixey, Presley Marion, 1852-1928 person
associatedWith Roberts, Lucy person
associatedWith Robertson, H. McG. person
associatedWith Roberts, P.K. person
associatedWith Robinson, Sara D. person
associatedWith Roche, Bessie G. person
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associatedWith Rodríguez Pérez, J. F. person
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associatedWith Rogers, H.W. person
associatedWith Rojas, Ignacio person
associatedWith Rojas, María Teresa de, 1902- person
associatedWith Roldan, Miguel person
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associatedWith Romero, Raquel person
associatedWith Romeu y Jaime, Domingo person
associatedWith Roosevelt, Theodore, 1858-1919 person
associatedWith Root, Elihu, 1845-1937. person
associatedWith Roper, Laura Wood, 1911-2003 person
associatedWith Ropes, James Hardy, 1866-1933 person
associatedWith Rose, June person
associatedWith Rose, Mona person
associatedWith Rosenau, M. J. (Milton Joseph), 1869-1946 person
associatedWith Rosenau, Myra F. person
associatedWith Rosenberg, Edward F. person
associatedWith Rose, Wickliffe, 1862-1931 person
associatedWith Rossiter, P.S. person
associatedWith Ross, John W. person
associatedWith Ross, Ronald, Sir, 1857-1932 person
associatedWith Rovensky, [s.n.] person
associatedWith Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene corporateBody
associatedWith Royster, Lawrence T. (Lawrence Thomas), 1874-1953 person
associatedWith Rucker, William Colby, 1875- person
associatedWith Ruffner, E. L., person
associatedWith Rumbaugh, Anne person
associatedWith Russell Brothers (Anniston, Alabama) corporateBody
associatedWith Russell, Frederick F. (Frederick Fuller), 1870-1960 person
associatedWith Russell, Richard B. (Richard Brevard), 1897-1971 person
associatedWith Rynearson, Edward Harper, 1901- person
associatedWith Sacasa, Carlos F. person
associatedWith Safford, William Edwin, 1859-1926 person
associatedWith Saili, Aubrey person
associatedWith Saleeby, Najeeb M. (Najeeb Mitry), 1870- person
associatedWith Sanford, Edward Terry, 1865-1930 person
associatedWith Sanger, Wm. Cary (William Cary), 1853-1921 person
associatedWith Sawyer, Wilbur A. (Wilbur Augustus), 1879-1951 person
associatedWith Scannell, E.J. person
associatedWith Schellberg, Leonard person
associatedWith Schellberg, Louise person
associatedWith Schereschewsky, J. W. (Joseph Williams), 1873-1940 person
associatedWith Schnurr, Dorma V. person
associatedWith Schuman, Henry person
associatedWith Schwegmann, George A., 1900- person
associatedWith Schwieger, John D. person
associatedWith Scott, Hugh L. person
associatedWith Scott, Winfield person
associatedWith Seidelin, Harold person
associatedWith Senter, Orestes A.B. person
associatedWith Serpa Novoa, Roberto, 1888-1959 person
associatedWith Seth, Alexander L. person
associatedWith Seth, Catherine E. person
associatedWith Seth, Frances B. person
associatedWith Seventh Army Corps. corporateBody
associatedWith Seward, Blanton P. person
associatedWith Sexton, Anna M. person
associatedWith Seymour, Flora Warren, 1888-1948 person
associatedWith Shackelford family. family
associatedWith Shackelford, Virginius Randolph, 1885-1949. person
associatedWith Sharpe, A. C. person
associatedWith Shaw, Edwin Coupland, 1863-1941 person
associatedWith Sheppard, Morris, 1875-1941 person
associatedWith Sherman, John P.R. person
associatedWith Shuell, Lawrence person
associatedWith Sigerist, Henry E. (Henry Ernest), 1891-1957 person
associatedWith Siler, J. F. (Joseph Franklin), 1875-1960 person
associatedWith Simon, Sidney R. person
associatedWith Simpson, June person
associatedWith Simpson, T. McN. person
associatedWith Simpson, Walter M. person
associatedWith Skinner, J.O. person
associatedWith Slocum, Chuck H. person
associatedWith Smith, Austin, 1912- person
associatedWith Smith, George H. person
associatedWith Smith, Hugh M. (Hugh McCormick), 1865-1941 person
associatedWith Smith, John H. person
associatedWith Smith, Lucian person
associatedWith Smith, Luther Ely, 1873-1951, person
associatedWith Smith, M. Katherine person
associatedWith Smith, Samuel W. person
associatedWith Smithsonian Institution corporateBody
associatedWith Smith, Theobald,1859-1934 person
associatedWith Smith, William Alden, 1859-1932 person
associatedWith Smith, William F. person
associatedWith Smittle, Jack person
associatedWith [s.n.], Alice person
associatedWith [s.n.], George person
associatedWith [s.n.], Had person
associatedWith Snidow, Herman W. person
associatedWith [s.n.], Lida person
associatedWith [s.n.], Sam person
associatedWith [s.n.], Sue person
associatedWith Soper, Fred Lowe, 1893-1977 person
associatedWith South Carolina. Supreme Court corporateBody
associatedWith Sparkman, S. M. person
associatedWith Spencer, Steven M. person
associatedWith Spielmacher, Earl person
associatedWith Spies, Betty person
associatedWith Spies, Tom D. (Tom Douglas), 1902-1960 person
associatedWith Spooner, Mary L. person
associatedWith Standlee, Mary W. (Mary Walker) person
associatedWith Standley, Frank person
associatedWith Stark, Alexander N. person
associatedWith Sternberg, George Miller, 1838-1915 person
associatedWith Sternberg, Martha L. person
associatedWith Stewart, N.P. person
associatedWith Stewart, P.M. person
associatedWith Stewart, W. Branks person
associatedWith Stiles, Virginia person
associatedWith Stimpson, W. G. (William Gordon), 1865-1940 person
associatedWith Stimson, Arthur Marston, 1876- person
associatedWith Stirling, H.V. person
associatedWith Stitt, E. R. (Edward Rhodes), 1867-1948 person
associatedWith Streit, Paul H. person
associatedWith Strode, George K., 1886- person
associatedWith Strong, Richard A. person
associatedWith Stunts, A. Edward person
associatedWith Sturgis, Helen M person
associatedWith Suarez, Peter W. person
associatedWith Sutherland, Charles person
associatedWith Sutter, Georgia S. person
associatedWith Sutton, J.V. person
associatedWith Sweeney, Ray person
associatedWith Sweet, Ernest Albert, 1876- person
associatedWith Sweet, Forest H. person
associatedWith Taft, William H. (William Howard), 1857-1930 person
associatedWith Tansey, William A. person
associatedWith Tasker, A.N. person
associatedWith Tate, Paul L. person
associatedWith Taylor, Edward T. (Edward Thomas), 1858-1941 person
associatedWith Taylor, John R. person
associatedWith Templeton, Alexander M. person
associatedWith Thayer, William Sydney, 1864-1932 person
associatedWith Thies, Carl person
associatedWith Thomas, G.W. person
associatedWith Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, Inc. corporateBody
associatedWith Thomas Nelson & Sons corporateBody
associatedWith Thomason, H.D. person
associatedWith Thomas, Pride person
associatedWith Thompson, L. person
associatedWith Thompson, Rudolph E. person
associatedWith Thorpe, John Edward Stirling, d. 1950 person
associatedWith Tice, Linwood F. person
associatedWith Tilden, Evelyn B. person
associatedWith Tillery, P.A. person
associatedWith Tillisch, Jan H. person
associatedWith Tisdel, Alton P., 1879-1945 person
associatedWith Titus, Warren Irving person
associatedWith Tocantins, Leandro M. (Leandro Maues), 1901-1963 person
associatedWith Toepper, C. G. (Charles G.), 1874-1942 person
associatedWith Torbett, J. W. (John Walter), 1871- person
associatedWith Torney, George H. person
associatedWith Townsend, Carolyn person
associatedWith Treanor, Wally person
associatedWith Treanor, Wally J. person
associatedWith Trent, Josiah C. (Josiah Charles), 1914-1948 person
associatedWith Tripoli, C.J. person
associatedWith Trout, Hugh Henry, 1878-1950 person
associatedWith Truby, Albert E. (Albert Ernest), 1871-1954 person
associatedWith Truby, Bonnie person
associatedWith Tydings, Millard E. (Millard Evelyn), 1890-1961 person
associatedWith Ulio, James Alexander, 1882-1958 person
associatedWith United States. Army corporateBody
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associatedWith United States. Congress. House corporateBody
associatedWith United States. Congress. Senate corporateBody
associatedWith United States. Government Printing Office corporateBody
associatedWith United States. Public Health Service corporateBody
associatedWith United States. Surgeon-General's Office. corporateBody
associatedWith United States Territorial Expansion Memorial Commission. corporateBody
associatedWith United States. War Dept. corporateBody
associatedWith University of Edinburgh corporateBody
associatedWith University of Virginia corporateBody
associatedWith Updegraff, Gertrude B. person
associatedWith Upshur, Alfred P. person
associatedWith Usher, Robert J. person
associatedWith van Beuren, Frederick T., Jr. person
associatedWith Vaughan, John R. person
associatedWith Vaughn, Emmet I. person
associatedWith Vega, M.L. person
associatedWith Venezuela corporateBody
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associatedWith Vergara, Jose Randin person
associatedWith Viets, Henry R. (Henry Rouse), 1890-1969 person
associatedWith Vincent, George E. (George Edgar), 1864-1941 person
associatedWith Voegtlin, Silian person
associatedWith Walker, J. Carter (John Carter), 1874- person
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associatedWith Walker, John H. person
associatedWith Wallace, Edward P. person
associatedWith Wallach, Sidney, 1905-1979 person
associatedWith Ward, Thomas person
associatedWith Waring, James J., 1883-1962 person
associatedWith Warner, Lena A. person
associatedWith Warren, Andrew J. person
associatedWith Warthen, Harry J. person
associatedWith Washington and Jefferson College (Washington, Pa.) corporateBody
associatedWith Waters, James F. person
associatedWith Watson, Malcolm, 1873-1955 person
associatedWith Watson, R.A. person
associatedWith Watson, Roy person
associatedWith Webster, Royal S. person
associatedWith Weedon, Leslie W. person
associatedWith Welch, William Henry, 1850-1934 person
associatedWith Welles, Thomas person
associatedWith Wescott, George T. person
associatedWith West, Olin person
associatedWith Wheeler, Helen person
associatedWith Whelden, John person
associatedWith Whitebread, Charles, 1878-1963 person
associatedWith White, Charles S. person
associatedWith White, Joseph Hill, 1859-1953 person
associatedWith White, R.O. person
associatedWith White, Wilbert W. (Wilbert Webster), 1863-1944 person
associatedWith White, William C. person
associatedWith Whitmore, Eugene R. person
associatedWith Whittaker, Ralph Rohrer, Jr. person
associatedWith W.H. Lowdermilk & Co. corporateBody
associatedWith Wilder, Russell M. (Russell Morse), 1885-1959 person
associatedWith Wilder, Sarah Hinds person
associatedWith William H. Welch Medical Library corporateBody
associatedWith Williams, Louis J., Jr. person
associatedWith Williams, Louis L. person
associatedWith Williams, Marian Walker person
associatedWith Williamson, Charles C. (Charles Clarence), 1877-1965 person
associatedWith Willis, John M. person
associatedWith Willson, Chat Hill person
associatedWith Wilson, Alexander M. person
associatedWith Wilson, Jennie person
associatedWith Wilson, Louis B. (Louis Blanchard), 1866-1943 person
associatedWith Wilson, Robert, Jr. person
associatedWith Wilson, W. F. (William Frank), 1875- person
associatedWith Wingate, George Wood, 1840-1928 person
associatedWith Wise, James Waterman, 1901- person
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associatedWith Woldert, Albert person
associatedWith Woltman, Henry W. person
associatedWith Woodfall, H.C. person
associatedWith Wood, Frances person
associatedWith Wood, H.R. person
associatedWith Wood, Leonard, 1860-1927 person
associatedWith Woods, Archie S. person
associatedWith Woods, J.G. person
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associatedWith Woodward, Robert F. person
associatedWith Wood, William A. person
associatedWith Worden, John E., Jr. person
associatedWith Wranek, Jr., William H., Jr. person
associatedWith Wranek, William H., Jr. person
associatedWith Wratten, Bessie C. person
associatedWith Wratten, George M. person
associatedWith Wright, Boykin person
associatedWith Wright, Boykin, Jr. person
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associatedWith Wyeth, Inc. corporateBody
associatedWith Wylie, H. Boyd person
associatedWith Wyllie, John Cook, 1908-1968 person
associatedWith Wyman, Walter, 1848-1911 person
associatedWith Xavier, A. F. person
associatedWith Younger, Edward, 1909- person
associatedWith Young, Innes, person
associatedWith Young, Tandy C. person
associatedWith Zunzunegui, Demetrio person
Place Name Admin Code Country
Florida
West Florida
United States
France
Missouri--Saint Louis
Florida
Cuba
Puerto Rico
United States
Cuba
Subject
Autograph albums
Efficiency, Organizational
Finance, Personal
Human Experimentation
Law
Medicine
Medicine, Military
Medicine, Military
Military hygiene
Monuments
Physicians
Public health
Spanish
Thomas Jefferson Memorial (Washington, D.C.)
Tropical medicine
World War, 1914-1918
World War, 1914-1918
World War, 1914-1918
World War, 1914-1918
Yellow fever
Occupation
Activity

Person

Birth 1860

Death 1950

Information

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Ark ID: w6xd1b70

SNAC ID: 46985335