Congregation Shearith Israel (New York, N.Y.)

This historical sketch is divided into the following subject headings: Founding Congregation; First Mill Street Synagogue; Revolutionary War; Kashrut; Charity; Children's Education; Second Mill Street Synagogue; Crosby Street Synagogue until Today; Prayer Books; Religious Leadership; Involvement in New York Jewish Institutions; Women's Work Pre-Sisterhood; Shearith Israel Sisterhood; Shearith Israel League; Adult Education; Cemeteries; and List of Ministers.

Founding Congregation The history of the oldest congregation in the United States is intertwined with the United States' first settlement of Jews. The first Jew to come to the New World was most probably Louis de Torres, a Marrano, who accompanied Christopher Columbus on his exploration, in order to interpret the assumed ancient tongue Hebrew for the natives. 1 More adventurers, who either stayed or continued their journeys, followed. The arrival of twenty-three penniless men, women, and children in 1654 marked the first settlement of Jews. From this "Remnant of Israel," a congregation was born, named "Shearith Israel."

This small group gratefully arrived in New Amsterdam having suffered an exile and being stranded by pirates. Years before, they had settled in Brazil when the Dutch overtook the Portuguese in the country in 1630 . The Portuguese reconquered Brazil in 1654, and gave the Dutch Jewish families, which amounted to several hundred, three months' amnesty to leave the country. Supplied with sixteen boats, the Dutch Jews fled the Portuguese Inquisition. All but one returned to the safety of Holland. The lost ship fell prey to Spanish pirates, but was rescued by a French Man-of-War and brought eventually to New Amsterdam. 2

At last finding refuge, the small group could not yet breathe easily. Held liable by the French captain for their fare, their meager possessions were auctioned off and two of the group were held prisoner. Fortunately, the ship's crew was eager to depart, and finally left after assurances that the Jewish community in Amsterdam would pay off their brethren's debt. 3

Jews in Amsterdam held a sizeable interest in the Dutch West India Company, which proved to be a saving grace for the small group. The governor of New Amsterdam, Peter Stuyvesant, disliked non-Calvinists and in addition, did not want any unwelcome charges during the winter. However, Stuyvesant was ordered by the Dutch West India Company on April 26, 1755 to allow the Jews to remain and live in New Netherland, "provided the poor among them shall not become a burden to the Company or to the community, but be supported by their own nation." 4

By 1655, there were more than ten Jewish men in the community, fulfilling the required prayer quorum by Jewish law. The group, used to freedom of worship in Amsterdam, was prohibited from holding services publicly. Stuyvesant did grant them one concession; a place to bury their dead. The location of a "little hook of land…outside of this city," bestowed in 1656 for this purpose, remains a mystery. 5

When the British overtook New Amsterdam in 1664, they granted Lutherans the right to worship freely. In 1683, the Charter of Liberties, passed by the Colonial Assembly, extended this right to those "who profess Christianity." Jews were allowed to worship publicly by 1692 . A description of New York by Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac includes Jews among those who had their own church. In 1695, Rev. John Miller, Chaplain of the Grenadiers in New York, drew a map of the city by memory. His map cites "the Jewes Synagogue" as being on the South side of Beaver Street. A different site, on the north of Mill Street, is described in a real estate document dated in 1700 as a synagogue. This site was rented from John Harperdinck for eight pounds a year and was used for worship until 1728 . 6

Although the custom of the religious services followed Spanish-Portuguese (Sephardi) practices, there were actually more Eastern European (Ashkenazi) Jews living in New York than Sephardim. The use of a minority's traditions for the synagogue is due partly to the affluence and leadership of the Sephardim and to the appeal their culture had for Ashkenazi Jews. Marc Angel writes, "... They could never have survived unless Ashkenazim were attracted to Sephardic culture. Ashkenazim wanted to be part of the Sephardi community..." Interestingly, the records of Shearith Israel were kept in Portuguese until the early eighteenth century, when an English copy was added to give access for Ashkenazi members. 7

First Mill Street Synagogue The first building erected as a synagogue in the United States was constructed on Mill Street in 1728 . The lot, bought from Cornelius and Catherine Copper, cost 100 pounds, one loaf of sugar, and one pound of Bohea tea. The sale was transacted through trustees, since only the Dutch and Episcopal Churches were permitted to incorporate. Bound by "ties of blood and commerce," Jews in Barbados, Boston, Curaçao, Dutch Guiana, Jamaica, and London sent generous donations. Mill Street Synagogue was consecrated on April 8, 1730, and included a mikveh (ritual bath), ladies gallery, and a community center (built in 1731 ) for use as a school and meeting hall. 8

Revolutionary War The rise of the Revolutionary War allowed Jews to express their desire to be full participants in the New Republic. Jewish patriots, including the Hazzan (congregation reader) Gershom Mendes Seixas, fled to Philadelphia and safer cities once the British overtook New York. The loyalists in the congregation retained the synagogue, conducting religious services when they were able. A special service was held prior to Seixas' flight, in support of the Continental Congress' appeal for a day of fasting and prayer. Seixas incorporated several patriotic prayers once he returned to New York in 1785. Among these prayers was the beginning of Thanksgiving Day Services, in support of George Washington's Thanksgiving Day Proclamation in 1789. Future congregation leaders continued Thanksgiving Day Services, and instituted other new services in response to proclamations by local, state, or national governments, or to memorialize the death of public figures. 9

The congregation addressed New York Governor George Clinton in January 1784, writing: "Though the society we belong to is small... we flatter ourselves that none has manifested a more zealous attachment to the sacred cause of America..." Initiated by Shearith Israel, the Jewish congregations in the United States planned to send an address to the new President, George Washington. Although delays led the Savannah and Newport congregations to send addresses separately, four congregations in 1790 made a joint address. The letter was sent by Congregation Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia on behalf of the New York, Philadelphia, Charleston, and Richmond Jewish congregations. 10

The effect the Revolutionary War had on religious practice and authority in Shearith Israel was profound. The war had forced Jewish soldiers to desecrate the Sabbath and eat non-kosher food. Punishments for those who were lax in religious observance gradually lessened to nothing after the war. 11 Prior to the revolution, the congregation modeled its religious authority on its mother synagogue in Amsterdam, which had practiced excommunication. Early Shearith Israel records display efforts at ostracism as a form of punishment. A record book entry in 1752 states that a Jews who has "absented himself from the synagogue or was no way a benefactor to the congregation, his corpse and those of his family may not be buried within the walls" of the Jewish cemetery unless the Parnass (President) gave his permission. A proclamation read on Yom Kippur in 1757, excommunicated violators of the Sabbath and urged them to repent. Complaints from congregation members led the Parnass and Elders to soften the proclamation the following year, with words such as: "... like faithful shepherds, call into the fold the wandering sheep." 12

By 1805, when the currently used constitution and by-laws were drafted, there was no longer any mention of punishment for religious laxity. Laxity was tolerated if made by members. Officers, clergy, and teachers were held in stricter judgment. 13

The New Republic also gave power to members of the congregation as representatives of their synagogue government, as can be seen in comparing the constitutions of 1728 and 1761 . In 1728, authority was granted solely to the officers: "They may act as their Conscience shall dictate them for the well governing of our said Congregation." In 1761, the officers elected were "... with the authority given them by the said Yechidim (members)." Their duties were outlined specifically for the first time. 14

Kashrut Being the sole Jewish congregation in New York City until 1825, Shearith Israel was the religious authority for the entire Jewish community. The elected officers were responsible for providing kashrut supervision, charity, and children's education.

Kashrut was known to have been available in New York since 1660 . That year, Asser Levy and Moses de Lucena were permitted to conduct their business as butchers by the Dutch government. Records indicate that New York exported kosher meat, particularly to Curaçao and Jamaica from 1730 until after the Revolution. 15

The congregation still elects a shochet (ritual slaughterer) to perform and supervise kosher meat production. In the early days, the shochet would slaughter animals from non-Jewish butchers, who would then sell the meat in the market with an identification seal made out of lead. When mistakes and sometimes outright deception arose, the Congregation appealed to the City Council. In 1805, Caleb Vandenberg offered unkosher meat for sale that had been identified as kosher. The Mayor revoked Vandenberg's license. When he apologized and promised to obey kashrut laws, Shearith Israel trustees requested that the City restore his license. 16

In 1803, trouble arrived in the form of Jacob Abrahams, who was elected that year as the Congregation's shochet . A sharp rift between officers and leading members of Shearith Israel occurred as sides were taken over Abrahams' lack of religious observance and questions concerning his job performance. Abrahams' contract ended in 1813, and he set himself up as an independent shochet, challenging synagogue authority and putting the system of kashrut supervision into the control of individual ritual slaughterers. An appeal made by the congregation to the Mayor briefly stopped Abrahams' activities. Supporters of Abrahams issued a petition to the City, and the previous ordinance was withdrawn. Kashrut supervision was now open to any shochet . 17

Charity The congregation's first organized charitable society is believed to have been around 1758 . The minutes mention a Hebra (society) in that year as being permitted to receive synagogue offerings and loans. Previously, the Parnass and Assistants distributed charity. Traveling Jews were given eight shillings for up to twelve weeks, and if need be, passage and kosher food. A system of life pensions was provided for needy members of the congregation. This system is first mentioned in the 1760 minutes, and most likely followed an example set by the London congregation, Shaar Hashamayim. Hyman Grinstein writes: "... The creation of a pension system by Shearith Israel went beyond anything attempted by any mutual aid society in New York and was the most remarkable development in Jewish philanthropy in the city prior to the Civil War." 18

The early years show charity being dispensed for visiting Rabbis soliciting funds for overseas communities, refugees from the French Revolution, Jews traveling from the West Indies to other location, Jews who had sold themselves into slavery to pay for their ship passage, and to those victims of epidemics of infectious diseases. As immigration into the United States rose beginning in the 1820s, charitable organizations focused their efforts on assisting immigrants. 19

The congregation in July 1802 established the oldest existing Jewish philanthropic organization in New York. Named Hebra Hased Va-Amet (Kindness and Truth Society), it maintains the congregation's cemeteries, helps poor Jews obtain a Jewish burial, and assists other communities who have experienced disasters. Prior to the development of Jewish undertakers and funeral parlors, Hased Va-Amet performed religious burial rites, watched over the dead, and helped those in mourning. Among its most significant contributions to New York has been educating the Jewish community on laws of burial and mourning. A booklet, published in 1827 was used extensively by other funeral societies, and was followed by later publications. 20

Other charitable societies were begun by Shearith Israel over the years. Some lost energy and faded away, but others merged with other societies and are still in operation. The Congregation formed the following societies that are no longer in existence: Hebra Gemiluth Hasadim ( 1785-1790, Society for Dispensing Acts of Kindness) provided financial and medical assistance, visits for the sick, assistance in funerals and help for mourners. Hazzan Gershom Mendes Seixas formed Kalfe Sedaka Mattan Basether ( 1798-1816, Charity Depositary Gift in Secret) during a yellow fever epidemic, after city residents fled to the suburbs and charity funds needed to be replenished. The society lasted for Seixas' lifetime. Hebra Leezrat Ani Veevyon ( 1839-?, New York Hebrew Assistance Society), was unique in that all of its funds were completely distributed to poor Jews, versus kept for future needs. The Society was nonetheless able to contribute money for synagogue building repairs in 1841 and for a capital building fund for Jews' Hospital in 1851 . 21

Societies that have grown and are still operating include Meshibat Nefesh (1822- ) known as the Hebrew Benevolent Society, and grandfather to the Hebrew Orphan Asylum. Founded by Ashkenazi members, it moved its offices to Congregation Bnai Jeshurun, after the Ashkenazi congregation was established in 1825 . 22

In 1828, Shearith Israel formed Hebra Hinuch Nearim Veezrat Ebyonim, a long title that translates into Society for the Education of Poor Children and Relief of Indigent Persons of the Jewish Persuasion in the City of New York. In 1860, the name was shortened to the Hebrew Relief Society of the City of New York. The Society's duties included providing annual stipends for widows and orphans, educating poor children, and distributing necessities to the poor. The Society consolidated with the Female Benevolent Society in 1870, and became a constituent of the newly formed United Hebrew Charities in 1874 . Since 1881, the Society has also assumed the role of granting life pensions to needy congregation members. 23

Children's Education "Men trained in New York were grossly ignorant even of the pronunciation of Hebrew," Hyman Grinstein writes, adding, "The reasons for this paucity of knowledge lie primarily in the low standards of achievement which were set as the goals of Jewish education in America." Later congregations felt obstacles Shearith Israel experienced in Jewish education as well: The increasing importance of secular education; difficulties finding learned, suitable teachers; and abandonment of Jewish schools. 24

In the colonial period, religious and secular education was the responsibility of the Church, and Jews provided their own as a community. The earliest reference to a Ribbi (teacher) is Benjamin Elias, who is mentioned in the synagogue minutes in 1728 . A school building was erected in 1731 annexed to the Mill Street Synagogue, and the earliest school was called Yeshibat Minhat Areb . Later it simply became known as the Hebra, for the name of the building it occupied. 25

Hebrew was taught to children until 1755, when the school became parochial, teaching Hebrew, Spanish, English, writing, and arithmetic. In 1801, Myer Polonies left a generous legacy for a school, and Polonies Talmud Torah opened on May 2, 1802 . As Jacob Hartstein writes, "the founding of this school in 1802 did not mark the beginning of a permanent institution." The community faced a constant struggle to maintain teachers and students. At times, the lack of an adequate teacher's salary led to the school's closing. 26

When the Free School Society was formed in 1805 introducing the theory of public education, it led to the passing of a State Act on March 12, 1813, establishing common schools. Polonies Talmud Torah reorganized in 1812 into a common school, increasing its quota of free students. A grant had made the reorganization possible; working from a precedent set in 1801 from an Act passed by New York Legislature, Shearith Israel was able to obtain funds from the State as a religious charity school. 27

The size of the school, however, remained small. Inadequate teachers remained a challenge and residents were moving northward into the city away from the synagogue. Furthermore, wealthier congregation members also tended to provide their children with private tutors or to place them in Jewish boarding schools. 28

After public schools were placed under the auspices of the New York City Board of Education when it was formed in 1842, religious material slowly wound its way out of the schoolroom. In 1851, an Act by the State Legislature banned sectarian schoolbooks in public schools; in 1855, reading passages from the Bible was left to the discretion of the local Ward Boards. More and more parents took advantage of the free education, and the all-day Jewish school was put into a state of crisis. 29

The emergence of a supplementary Hebrew school began. Polonies Talmud Torah had begun in 1823 teaching only Hebrew subjects three times a week in the afternoons. When Judah Touro died in 1854, leaving a generous legacy to Polonies Talmud Torah, the school tried again to operate a full-time parochial school. Low student attendance stifled the attempt after a year, and the school reverted to a free Hebrew school for congregation members, providing classes twice a week. Today, Shearith Israel continues to operate a Hebrew school on a part time basis for children and teens. 30

Second Mill Street Synagogue The increase of Jewish immigration to the United States in the early 1800s necessitated a larger synagogue. As the city grew, congregation members followed the northward movement of the residential population, and Shearith Israel was caught between choosing to buy uptown or rebuilding on the existing lot. Sentiment won over demographics, and a second Mill Street Synagogue was constructed in the same location. Dedicated on April 17-18, 1818, the synagogue soon became surrounded by stores. In 1833, the trustees sold the building, and the congregation met in a room of the New York Dispensary for one year until the Crosby Street Synagogue was completed. Using the first Mill Street Synagogue's cornerstone in the Crosby Street's Synagogue foundation helped preserve historical sentiment. 31

Crosby Street Synagogue until Today Crosby Street Synagogue was dedicated on June 12, 1834 and served the congregation for twenty-five years. By 1850, the neighborhood had deteriorated and residents were once again moving away from the district. The congregation sold Crosby Street Synagogue in 1859, and services were held temporarily at 894 Broadway until a new building on Nineteenth Street was erected. Hazzan Jacques Judah Lyons consecrated the Nineteenth Synagogue on September 12, 1860 . Residential movement uptown, coupled with problems in the design and structure of the building led trustees to resolve to sell the building in 1864 . It was not until 1895 that new lots were found, located on Central Park West and 70 th Street. The Nineteenth Street Synagogue was ceremoniously closed and the present site was consecrated on May 19, 1897 . 32

The present synagogue on Central Park West and 70 th Street includes a "little synagogue" that serves as an historic shrine. Religious and ceremonial objects used in prior synagogue buildings, back to 1730 are on display. To commemorate the 300 th Anniversary of the Congregation and Settlement of Jews in America in 1954, the congregation built a Community House and a School. It is interesting to note that synagogues after Mill Street did not construct mikvehs (ritual baths). Women who obeyed Family Purity laws were able to use Congregation Bnai Jeshurun's mikvah that was built in 1833 . 33

Prayer Books The congregation generally had an insufficient number of prayer books, since they relied on Hebrew prayer books shipped from Amsterdam. Members of the congregation likely referred to the first Jewish prayer book printed in America that was published in 1761 . This prayer book was an English translation by an unknown author and was designed to assist those who did not understand Hebrew. Later, the congregation used Sephardi prayer books prepared by various authors in London and a series created in 1838 by Rabbi Isaac Leeser, of Congregation Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia. In 1929, Rev. Dr. David de Sola Pool organized the Union of Sephardic Congregations for the "promotion of the religious interests of Sephardic Jews." Among his projects was creating modern translations of prayer books for the many American Sephardi synagogues that then existed due to increased Sephardi immigration from Turkey, Greece, and Syria. 34

Religious Leadership Jews and non-Jews mixed easily in the New World, and Jews that came to the United States were generally tradesmen and workers, not traditional scholars. Shearith Israel had no ordained Rabbi as a leader until the twentieth century, but relied on Hazzanim to service and minister the congregation. 35

The duties of the Hazzan included preaching sermons on special occasions, leading prayer services, teaching children, performing circumcisions, answering simple questions pertaining to Jewish Law, assisting with kashrut issues, and representing the Jewish community in civic affairs. Major questions concerning Jewish law were kept for either visiting Rabbis, traveling to solicit funds for help overseas, or were mailed to a Rabbi in Amsterdam or London. At times, finding a Hazzan to lead the congregation was a challenge, and those that wished to, often remained in their post until their death. The majority of leaders were born and bred in other Sephardic communities such as Curaçao, Holland, and London. Gershom Mendes Seixas, who began his position in 1768, was the earliest native-born Hazzan . Since no rabbinic seminary existed in the United States during his time, Hazzan Joseph Jessurun Pinto served as his primary educator. 36

The Hazzan used the title Reverend and was referred to as a Minister, in order to fit the terms used in State law and interfaith civic affairs. The term "minister" may have derived from a 1684 New York law requiring that a minister of religion or a justice of peace was needed to perform marriages. A State law enacted in 1784 permitted any religious society to incorporate (Congregation Shearith Israel immediately took the opportunity). As part of this law, a minister was needed to perform certain trustee duties. New York State changed its marriage law in 1830, expanding the wording to include Jewish customs; however, the term minister remained as a traditional title for Hazzanim in Shearith Israel. 37

Involvement in New York Jewish Institutions Through the activities of its ministers and leading members, Shearith Israel has been involved with establishing many of the first Jewish communal institutions in New York. Among the more significant institutions members have initiated are the Jews' Hospital in New York ( 1852 ), Hebrew Sheltering and Guardian Society of New York ( 1879 ), the New York Board of Jewish Ministers ( 1881 ), Mt. Sinai Training School for Nurses ( 1882 ), Montefiore Hospital ( 1884 ), Jewish Theological Seminary of America ( 1886 ), the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America ( 1898 ), and the YWHA ( 1903 ). 38

Women's Work, Pre-Sisterhood The first organized social work by women in Shearith Israel was the formation of the Female Hebrew Benevolent Society in 1820 . The Society cared for poor female Jews and raised funds through synagogue offerings, dinners, and balls. Men organized the events and made appropriate speeches, protecting the women's modesty. In May 1870, the Society consolidated with its male counterpart, the Hebrew Relief Society. 39

In 1838, Shearith Israel women were inspired to create an association similar to Rebecca Gratz' Hebrew Sunday School Society. Titled the Association for the Moral and Religious Instruction of Children of the Jewish Faith, a Sunday School for poor children was opened, that was separate from the Polonies Talmud Torah School. Twenty young women in the congregation volunteered to act as teachers for poor children, a sewing committee formed to provide the children with clothes, a library was soon created, and funds were provided through subscriptions. Unfortunately, two years later a smallpox epidemic led to a month of school closings, and the initial eagerness of the young ladies waned as school attendance dropped. Efforts to revive the Society were made in 1845, but attendance still remained low and the Association closed soon after. 40

Women were also involved in the New York Hebrew Assistance Society, a Shearith Israel charitable organization that was in operation from 1839 until an unknown date. A ladies' committee was in charge of interviewing applicants. 41

The following year, women formed a Ladies Hebra to assist the Hebra Hased Va-Amet with ministering to sick and dying women. The women also sewed burial shrouds for both men and women. The Ladies Hebra was absorbed into Hebra Hased Va-Amet in 1871 . 42

Several sewing societies were founded to sew clothes for the poor. A Ladies Sewing Association (1847-?) distributed 907 pieces of clothing in 1851 . During the Civil War, a Ladies Army Relief sewed clothing, linen, and bandages. 43

A Ladies Aid Society (1878- ) combined sewing and relief, and provided help for clients predetermined by the United Hebrew Charities. In 1891, this Society began a Kindergarten Society, through opening a nursery-kindergarten on the Lower East Side. These two societies were later merged in the Sisterhood. 44

Rev. Dr. H. Pereira Mendes initiated an Envelope Society in 1889, in order to support Jewish religious schools on the Lower East Side. These schools, which included the Downtown Mission School and Tremont School, helped counteract the Christian proselytizing schools focused on poor immigrant Jewish children. Appeals were sent before Passover, Succos, and Shavous in the form of a card and return envelope. Run by women, the Envelope Society merged into the Sisterhood. 45

Shearith Israel Sisterhood The first Sisterhood of Personal Service in New York City developed as a result of a sermon delivered by Dr. Gustav Gottheil in 1887 at the Reform Temple Emanu-El. In 1896, Rev. Dr. H. Pereira Mendes encouraged the formation of a sisterhood at Shearith Israel. A Federation of Sisterhoods had recently formed to coordinate sisterhood work with United Hebrew Charities, and it is likely that the Sisterhood was organized for this purpose. 46

Shearith Israel Sisterhood was the result of a merger of five existing organizations: The Ladies Aid Society, Kindergarten Society, Envelope Society, Downtown Mission School, and Tremont Sunday School. In 1897, the Sisterhood began coordinating relief work with the United Hebrew Charities and was assigned a relief district. 47 Relief given to applicants consisted of money, clothing, coal, medical care, or summer outings for mothers and their children. 48

The Sisterhood expanded the relief efforts of its predecessors by opening a settlement house and engaging in probation work. Under the strong leadership of its President Alice Davis Menken, a settlement house was established at 58 St. Marks Place. As the need increased for more spacious quarters, the settlement house moved several times throughout lower Manhattan, 49 finally arriving at 133 Eldridge Street, where it closed in 1928 . In 1928 and into the 1940s, the Sisterhood operated a Talmud Torah (religious school) at the East Side Jewish Center at 128 Stanton Street. 50

Alice Davis Menken also initiated probation work, and in 1908, Sisterhood members began taking responsibility for girls put on probation at the Night Court for Women. David de Sola Pool writes, "It's befriending and seeking the rehabilitation of these girls was social pioneering, the fruits of which can be seen in aspects of modern remedial court work..." Work in this area ended when the Night Court for Women dissolved in 1919 . 51

The 1908 Revolt of the Young Turks was followed by the Balkan War in 1912 and 1913 . Marc Angel writes, "... the allies imposed economic measures which proved injurious to the Jews... It was estimated that 200,000 Jews in European Turkey were poverty-stricken." Challenged by the influx of poor and unskilled Sephardim, Shearith Israel insisted that these new immigrants be called "Oriental" Jews to distinguish them from the old Sephardic American Jews, who in actuality were now primarily of mixed Ashkenazi and Sephardic lineage. 52

Despite these diplomatic setbacks, the relationship between the old and new groups of Sephardim was generally positive, and the Congregation provided their new brethren with extensive assistance. The Sisterhood formed an Oriental Employment Bureau and its Neighborhood House in the Lower East Side became a Sephardic community center. In 1914, the Neighborhood House built two unique religious facilities for settlement houses: a Talmud Torah (religious school) and a synagogue. The synagogue, called Berith Shalom, offered low membership dues that included the use of Cypress Hills cemetery. In the 1920s, the new Sephardim economically were able to move out of the Lower East Side and in 1924 ; Coolidge's Immigration Law decreased immigration, slowly setting the stage for the closing of the Neighborhood House in 1928 . 53

Difficulties in fundraising led the Sisterhood to apply and be admitted in the Federation for the Support of Jewish Philanthropic Societies in 1917 . When the Federation was forced to cut the Sisterhood's budget in 1932, the Sisterhood withdrew and began to reestablish its own financial footing. Despite the economic challenges, the Sisterhood has been able to continue its general activities that have always formed part of its mission to help the synagogue. These duties include sponsoring lectures and social events, working with Hebra Hased Va-Amet through a last rites committee, decorating the sukkah, and sewing holy vestments for religious ceremonial purposes. During and after World War II, the Sisterhood raised funds, sewed clothing packages, and provided assistance to refugees overseas and new immigrants in the United States and Israel. The Sisterhood is also a member of various women's organizations, among which are the Woman's Branch of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations and the successor to the Federation of Sisterhoods: Federation of Jewish Women's Organizations. 54

Shearith Israel League In 1897, a Junior League formed under the Sisterhood as a social and leadership training group for girls. The League helped raise considerable funds for the Sisterhood, offering theatre parties and balls. The League was also involved in conducting children's clubs and classes at the Neighborhood House, and visiting local hospitals. 55

On November 30, 1919, the Junior League reorganized as an independent society titled Shearith Israel League. The League issued a bulletin from 1922 until 1941, when the congregation took over its publication. Retaining its earlier missions to conduct social activities, offer literary and religious lectures and classes, and provide fundraising events for the synagogue, the Shearith Israel League cohesively provides an important community forum for the congregation. 56

Various clubs have sporadically emerged for periods in the congregation's recent history, each designed specifically for different age groups or needs. A Men's Club began in 1935 . Among its activities has been to offer social events and lectures and sponsor Memorial Day exercises at Chatham Square cemetery. A Young Peoples Group for members between the ages of twenty and thirty met from 1940-1952, publishing a cookbook and holding social and educational meetings. A Young Marrieds Club met at various members' homes from 1951-1957 . A Collegiate Group offered a lecture series from 1969-1971 . During the 1980s and early 1990s, a Social Action Committee operated a homeless shelter during the winter months. Throughout the ongoing tide of social clubs, Shearith Israel League, the Sisterhood, and the Men's Club continue to be vibrant societies in the community. 57

Adult Education Prior to 1840, adult education was provided informally, relying on learned men in the community or visiting Rabbis who had received their training overseas. In the late 1800s, when more Ashkenazi Jews began streaming into New York there was an influx of individuals who had higher Jewish learning. In 1840, the newly established Hebrew Literary and Religious Library Association used Crosby Street Synagogue's schoolroom to provide lectures and classes for adults. Although proposals were made, adult education did not become a permanent fixture in Shearith Israel until Henry Pereira Mendes became the congregation's minister in 1877 . In 1919, the newly formed Shearith Israel League included within its social activities "literary and religious lectures and classes." David de Sola Pool began weekly Sabbath Talmud class called Maimonides Talmud Circle in 1933, and a biweekly Collegiate Talmud Class met for a short time in 1971 . The Men's Club, founded in 1935, began a lectures series; as did a Collegiate group that met from 1969 to 1971 . In 1973, Shearith Israel established a program of Adult Jewish Studies. The program began offering university level courses under a four-year curriculum, and was placed under the auspices of the newly founded Sephardic House from 1978 until 1992, until the Sephardic House became a separate entity. 58

Cemeteries The first cemetery used for Jewish burial in New York was the aforementioned "little hook of land" granted by the Dutch to the Jewish refugees in 1656 . The location of this land remains a mystery. The Congregation then acquired its Chatham Square Cemetery, which was used from 1682 until 1831 . 59

The increase of population coupled by epidemics led the congregation to buy land on the north side of Thirteenth Street for use as a cemetery. Used only from 1802-1803, this cemetery held one burial before the city's development encroached upon its space. 60

The next lots of land bought for burial use was in 1804 at Eleventh Street. The Congregation dedicated this area as Beth Haim Shenee (The Second Cemetery), and transferred into it the one grave from Thirteenth Street. This cemetery supplemented the one at Chatham Square. It was first used solely those who died from infectious diseases, and later opened to the poor and strangers. A severe epidemic of yellow fever in 1822 led city officials to prohibit any further burials within certain areas of the city, closing off Chatham Square cemetery. From 1823 until 1830 when further city development reconstructed Eleventh Street, the Second Cemetery was the only Jewish burial ground used. A small triangle of land still remains of this graveyard, and the graves that were disturbed by the city's construction were moved into the smaller area. 61

In 1828, the congregation purchased plots of land farther afield from what was then the center of town, on Seventy-First Street. The expense and inconvenience of visiting the cemetery prohibited its use. The congregation finally sold the land in 1864 . Another area on Twenty-First Street was acquired in 1829 . Dedicated as Beth Hayim Shelishi (The Third Cemetery), the congregation enlarged the cemetery in 1831 and later in 1844 . Mordechai M. Noah was one of the last interred in this ground, having passed away in March 1851, three months before a City Ordinance prohibited further burials south of Eighty-Sixth Street. 62

Since this time, the congregation has used land at Cypress Hills Cemetery on Long Island. Out of the six cemeteries actually used by the Congregation, the following four can still be visited: Chatham Square, Eleventh Street (the Second Cemetery), Twenty-first Street (the Third Cemetery), and Cypress Hills.

List of Ministers 63 Saul Pardo, 1655-1682 Abraham Haim de Lucena, 1682-1720 Benjamin Wolf, 1720-1726 Moses Lopez de Fonseca, 1726-1736 David Mendes Machado, 1736-1747 Benjamin Pereira Mendes, 1748-1757 Isaac Cohen Da Silva, 1757-1759, 1766-1768 Joseph Jessurun Pinto, 1759-1766 Gershom Mendes Seixas, 1768-1776, 1785-1816 Jacob Raphael Cohen, 1783-1784 Emanuel Nunez Carvalho, 1784 Moses Levi Maduro Peixotto, 1816-1828 Isaac Benjamin Seixas, 1828-1839 Jacques Judah Lyons, 1839-1877 Henry Pereira Mendes, 1877-1920 David De Sola Pool, 1907-1919, 1922-1970 Louis C. Gerstein, 1942-1996 Marc D. Angel, 1969- Hayym Angel, 1997-

From the guide to the Congregation Shearith Israel, Records, undated, 1755-1996, (American Jewish Historical Society)

New York Sephardic synagogue, popularly known as the Founding Fathers of the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue, founded in 1654.

From the description of Records, 1706-1949. (Brandeis University Library). WorldCat record id: 45547887