American Medical Association. Dept. of Investigation.
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American Medical Association. Dept. of Investigation.
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American Medical Association. Dept. of Investigation.
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Biographical History
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration originated as part of the Dept. of Agriculture. In 1940, it was transferred to the Federal Security Agency, where it remained until 1953, when it became part of the newly created Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare. When the educational functions of this Department were separated to form the Dept. of Education in 1976, the remaining agencies, including the FDA, became the Dept. of Health and Human Services.
Norman Baker was an entrepreneur and jack-of-all-trades who included a bogus cancer cure (originally consisting of hypodermic injections) among his other enterprises.
Baker's first excursion into medical chicanery appears to have taken place around 1927, in connection with the Tangley Institute, a varicose-vein racket operated by one Charles Barewald. He began purveying his cancer cure in Muscatine, Iowa around December, 1929, advertising it generously over his radio station KTNT ("Know the Naked Truth"), in operation since about 1924. In 1930 he entered a brief and ultimately unhappy alliance with fellow cancer quack Harry Hoxsey--after which time, his regimen also included an escharotic treatment for external cancers bearing a remarkable resemblance to Hoxsey's method. KTNT was ordered off the air in 1931.
Also in 1931, Baker filed a $500,000 libel suit against the A.M.A. which was decided in the latter's favor by a federal court jury in the spring of 1932. Late in 1933, Baker's new radio station, XENT, began broadcasting from Nuevo Laredo, just over the Mexican border, where Baker also established a second cancer "hospital" while retaining some ties with his original Muscatine institution. He was convicted of practicing medicine without an Iowa license in 1936; moved his operation to Eureka Spring, Arkansas, around 1939; and was effectively put out of business by a federal conviction and four-year prison sentence for mail fraud in 1940. He died of liver cancer in 1958.
Osteopathy is an alternative school of medical practice founded by A.T. Still around 1874 and opposed by the AMA until the 1960's. Originally osteopathy focused heavily on spinal manipulations, and its resulting similarity to chiropractic contributed to the controversy surrounding it.
Royal Lee, promoter of Catalyn, advocated consumption of raw foods and opposed the pasteurization of milk and processing of foods. His major project, Catalyn, was a vitamin pill which contained only minute amounts of the vitamins and minerals it was supposed to supply; he also pushed other quackish vitamins and health foods, and was involved in various public health disputes, including the movement against water fluoridation. He operated the Lee Foundation for Nutritional Research, the Vitamin Products Company, and Standard Process Laboratories. Others used his publications to promote their own quackish products, such as Nutrilite.
Harvey Washington Wiley (1844-1930) was a prominent crusader for pure food and drugs during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Wiley served for 29 years as chief of the U.S. Agriculture Department's Bureau of Chemistry (a forerunner of the Food and Drug Administration). In 1911 he resigned under adverse political circumstances and became a contributing editor of GOOD HOUSEKEEPING magazine.
Ka-tar-no was a successor to Peruna, an immensely popular and highly alcoholic "patent medicine." The makers of Peruna, in response to the Food and Drug Act of 1906, changed its formula so it would actually include a medicinal (in this case, laxative) ingredient. The middling success of the new formula prompted the introduction of Ka-tar-no, which was (or claimed to be) simply "original formula" Peruna.
Established in 1913 as the Propaganda Dept.; name changed to Bureau of Investigation in 1925, and to Dept. of Investigation in 1958; disbanded 1975.
Founded to gather and disseminate information concerning health fraud and quackery. The Department's work began shortly after its first director, Arthur J. Cramp, M.D., joined the AMA staff in 1906, although it was not formally organized until 1913. Directors included Dr. Cramp (through 1935), Frank J. Clancy, M.D. (1936-1937), Paul C. Barton, M.D. (1938-1942), Bliss O. Halling (1942-1947), Oliver Field (1948-1964), and H. Doyl Taylor (1965-1975). Mr. Halling was Assistant Director from 1914 to 1942; Mr. Field held the title of Director of Research from 1965 through 1973. Following the abolition of the Department in 1975, these files were transferred to the AMA Division of Library and Information Management, which continued to add small amounts of material through 1983.
William F. Koch and his disciples were adherents of the use of "Glyoxylide," an intramuscularly injected preparation promoted as a cure for cancer and other diseases.
Koch was born in 1885 and received the Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Michigan and the M.D. from Wayne University (now Wayne State University). In 1919, a year after his graduation from medical school, he announced that he had discovered a "real specific" for cancer, which he began marketing under the name "Glyoxylide." Following legal action by the Food and Drug Administration, Koch left the U.S. for Brazil in 1948, and the promotion, production and distribution of Glyoxylide were taken over by Christian fundamentalist organizations. During this period, the therapeutic claims for Glyoxylide were broadened to include skin diseases, arthritis, and other disorders in addition to cancer; other similar substances including "Benzoquinone," "Malonide," and "KC-49" were also introduced. Koch died in 1967.
The National Research Council's Committee on Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy was founded in December, 1950 to investigate and evaluate proposed cancer therapies. Its sponsoring organizations included the American Association for Cancer Research, American Cancer Society, American Medical Association, Damon Runyon Memorial Fund, Food and Drug Administration, and National Cancer Institute. The Committee was dissolved 1957 and its functions taken over by the American Cancer Society's Committee on New or Unproved Methods of Treatment.
An historical article about the Committee is found in the September-October, 1957 issue of the National Research Council NEWS REPORT, a copy of which is included with these files.
The Central Health Committee of the State of Illinois, an anti-AMA nativist group, was a fusion of the Medical Liberty League of Chicago, the National Public School Protective League, and other groups. Individuals involved with it included Lora C. Little, George W. MacGregor, J.A. Bergen, Edwin S. Antisdale, M.R. Bibb, Arthur Hill Grimer, W.B. Allen, Walter E. Elfrink, John Maxwell, and Estel Beck.
Naturopathy is an alternative form of medicine using "psychological, mechanical and material health sciences to aid in purifying, cleansing and normalizing human tissues for the preservation or restoration of health, according to the fundamental principles of anatomy."
Naturopathic methods include or have included "phytotherapy, dietetics, psycho-therapy, suggesto-therapy, hydro-therapy, zone-therapy...electro-therapy, mechano-therapy...sanitation and heliotherapy." Naturopaths generally opposed aspects of allopathic medicine, including vaccination and fluoridation, and other practices such as the use of aluminum cooking utensils.
The earlier treatments covered by these files were caustic pastes (escharotics) applied to external cancers. Later the trend turned to injectable serum and diet therapies.
Henry J. Schireson (sometimes spelled Shireson) was a quack plastic and cosmetic surgeon.
Schireson spent the early part of his career in Chicago, moved to Philadelphia around 1934, was imprisoned on a federal fraud conviction in 1940, and died in 1949.
George S. Zuccala was an Italian-American medical technologist who developed "Polygen Z-49," an asthma treatment; "Anti-Cancergen Z-50," a cancer treatment; and the "Zuccala Lytic Test," an alleged diagnostic test for cancer.
Zuccala was described by an AMA official as "more of a naive enthusiast than an investigator with questionable philosophies." Unlike most of his ilk, he attempted resolutely to cooperate with organized medicine, and peppered the AMA with correspondence asking help and advice in researching and marketing his preparations. At the same time, he resisted overtures from anti-AMA groups such as the National Health Federation, who wished to espouse his cause alongside such out-and-out frauds as the Hoxsey cancer cure. In 1956 a report by the National Research Council branded both "Anti-Cancergen Z-50" and the "Lytic Test" as worthless, but Zuccala continued his "research" and promotional efforts until at least 1966.
Albert Abrams (1863-1924) and his many imitators and followers were proponents of "electronic medicine," a scheme in which they claimed to diagnose and treat diseases with electrical machinery.
Percival Lemon Clark's causes included opposition to vaccination, white bread, and pasteurized milk (with support from the dairy industry). He also sold a mail-order health course from his Chicago-based Health School, gave radio health lectures, and attempted to start a presidential campaign for Henry Ford. He sued the AMA for libel in 1929, but withdrew the action in 1933, before it came to trial.
Robert E. Lincoln, of Medford, Massachusetts, promoted a treatment in which the patient inhaled a solution of bacteriophages (i.e., bacteria-destroying viruses), by means of a nasal atomizer. The treatment was alleged to be of value in cancer, multiple sclerosis, tuberculosis, and Hodgkin's disease.
Among the Lincoln treatment's adherents were Gerald Winrod, fundamentalist publisher of THE DEFENDER magazine, which also crusaded for the treatments of Harry Hoxsey and William F. Koch; Jacob S. Schirmer, previously a user of the Koch treatment; and Otto G. Kuchynka, a Chicago physician. "Research" on the Lincoln treatment continued after his death in 1954, under the direction of A. Ernest Mills, but the therapeutic claims made for it became much more modest.
Harry M. Hoxsey (1901-1973) was probably the most visible and successful cancer-cure quack in twentieth-century America, operating in this country from 1924 to 1960.
Hoxsey's techniques included liquid tonics and pills for internal cancers, and an arsenic-based escharotic powder for external cancers. He spent most of his career, from 1936 on, in Dallas, Texas. After 1960, his clinic reappeared in Tijuana, Mexico, as the "Bio-Medical Center," still in operation as of 1990.
In 1948 Hoxsey filed a libel suit against AMA Journal editor Morris Fishbein. During the 1950's his cause was espoused by fundamentalist publisher Gerald Winrod and his DEFENDER magazine, and by Pennsylvania state senator John J. Haluska. In 1957 the Hoxsey treatment was the subject of an unprecedented public warning by the Food and Drug Administration, posted in post offices and other federal facilities throughout the country.
John R. Brinkley was known as the "goat-gland" doctor for his most famous scam, an operation in which portions of the testes of young goats were implanted into men of middling and later years as a cure for infertility, impotence, and allied complaints. Brinkley abandoned this procedure in the early 1930's in favor of the "four-way compound operation" for prostate trouble.
Brinkley went into business in Milford, Kansas in 1917; his first major notoriety came with a series of operations in Chicago in 1920. Keeping a step ahead of the Illinois authorities, he appeared briefly in Bridgeport, Connecticut in 1921, hawking eye transplant operations, and then returned to Milford. His Milford radio station, KFKB ("Kansas First, Kansas Best") was ruled off the air by the FCC in June of 1930; it was replaced by XER, at Villa Acuna, just over the Mexican border, which in turn was closed down by the Mexican government in February of 1934.
Brinkley filed his first libel suit against AMA Journal editor Morris Fishbein in 1930 and dropped it in 1934; a second suit came to trial in 1939 and resulted in a verdict for the defendant. Meanwhile, Brinkley had hastily abandoned Milford for Del Rio, Texas (just across the border from Villa Acuna) in 1933, allegedly after two of his patients died of tetanus. He ran for governor of Kansas in 1930, 1932, and 1934 (nearly winning in 1932); moved to Little Rock in 1938 and back to Del Rio in 1940; was indicted for mail fraud in September of 1941, and died May 26, 1942. A successor institution, the Milford [Kansas] Sanitarium, was operated by Brinkley associates O.M. Owensby, C.H. Dragoo, and Ashton J. Wise until it was closed down by state health authorities in September, 1961.
The Robinson Foundation appears to have sponsored the work of Dr. Max Gerson for several years ending around 1948. Dr. Gerson was then connected with the Madison Foundation for Biochemical Research until 1950.
The Western Medical Association was a mail-order epilepsy-cure concern headquartered in Chicago.
Founded around 1921, the concern changed its name to Western Medical Corporation in 1928. Its treatment was based on phenobarbital, a drug acknowledged to be of use in treating epilepsy, but safe to administer only under the direct supervision of a physician. The company also purveyed the same treatment as the "Vernon Treatment" under the corporate names "Vernon Laboratories" and (later) "Vernon Company." On occasion, customers who became dissatisfied with the treatment under one name would then be solicited to purchase the other.
A number of other dubious medical enterprises shared office quarters and directors with the Western Medical Association; among these were Cass Laboratories, a rheumatism-cure outfit, and Histeen Corporation, purveyors of a hay-fever treatment. The company's principal physician at the outset was William Weaver Lister; his successors included Harry L. James and William V. Kelly.
The National Health Federation was founded in 1955 by Fred J. Hart, to promote "freedom of choice" in health and medical care. In the words of a 1963 FDA report, this "frequently [meant] freedom to promote medical nostrums and devices which violate[d] the law."
Hart, formerly President of the Electronic Medical Foundation (the successor organization to Albert Abrams' College of Electronic Medicine), founded the National Health Federation shortly after a Federal Court injunction prohibited him from making further shipments of several electronic devices in the Abrams mold. He was convicted of violating this injunction in 1962. The National Health Federation sponsored a series of "National Congresses on Health Monopoly" during the 1960's, held at the same times and in the same cities as the National Congresses on Medical Quackery jointly sponsored by the AMA and the Food and Drug Administration.
Frank J. Kellogg operated from an address in Battle Creek, Michigan, in an apparent effort to trade on the reputation of W.K. Kellogg, of the breakfast cereal company, and his brother John Harvey Kellogg, who operated a reputable sanitarium in Battle Creek. Frank Kellogg in fact had no connection with these other Kellogg enterprises.
Krebiozen, a cancer drug developed by Yugoslav physician Stevan Durovic, was espoused by A.C. Ivy, M.D., Vice President in charge of the University of Illinois College of Medicine.
Krebiozen was introduced to the public in a controversial Chicago news conference on March 26, 1951. An A.M.A. study published later that year concluded that it had no value, and this remained the A.M.A.'s official position on the drug. The continuing controversy led to an investigation by the Illinois General Assembly (1953-55) and to the resignation of U. of Illinois President George Stoddard. The drug's supporters included actress Gloria Swanson and Illinois Senator Paul Douglas.
Chiropractic was originated in 1895 by D.D. Palmer of Davenport, Iowa, and furthered by his son B.J. Palmer and grandson D.D. Palmer.
"Laetrile" is the popular name of a preparation generally made from apricot kernels, alleged to be of value in the prevention and/or treatment of cancer.
The active ingredient of laetrile is amygdalin; it has been variously designated as "Vitamin B-15" or "Vitamin B-17" and marketed under the trade names Pangametin, Nitriloside, Aprikern, and Bee-Seventeen. Laetrile therapy is based ultimately on the "unitary" or "trophoblastic" theory of cancer, first expounded by John Beard in 1902. Laetrile and an earlier preparation, chymotrypsin, were developed and promoted by Ernst T. Krebs and Ernst T. Krebs, Jr.; other prominent laetrile advocates have included Andrew R.L. McNaughton, head of a California foundation devoted to its promotion; Ernesto Contreras, M.D., who operated a Tijuana, Mexico, clinic administering laetrile treatment; and Glenn D. Kittler, author of a book promoting laetrile.
During the 1950's the issue of fluoridation of public drinking water arose at the AMA House of Delegates. They assigned two committees of the Board of Trustees, the Council on Drugs and the Council on Foods and Nutrition, to study the problem. These councils conducted a year long study of municipal water supplies. The conclusion was that fluoridation is a safe and effective method of reducing dental caries, especially in children. The report was adopted by the House of Delegates and become the official position of the AMA.
John Emil Hett (1870-1956) was a Canadian physician who promoted an injectable "serum" as a cure for cancer.
Hett was graduated from the University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine in 1891 and entered practice in his native town of Kitchener, Ontario, where he first introduced his cancer "serum" around 1932. Shortly thereafter, he removed his practice to Windsor, where he remained for the rest of his career. A test of the serum by a bacteriologist (c. 1951) showed that its active ingredients were streptococcus fecalis and E. coli, making the substance "indistinguishable from bowel washings." Hett's license was revoked in 1951; in 1955, he was convicted and fined for continuing to practice in spite of the revocation. His cancer "therapy" continued to be administered by associates after his death, until about 1969 or 1970.
Royal S. Copeland, a homeopathic physician, was head of the American Institution of Homeopathy, 1907-08; Health Commissioner for New York City, 1918-1923; and U.S. Senator from New York, 1923-1938. A frequent commentator on health matters in the press and on radio, he was often connected with Bernarr Macfadden, a proponent of various questionable health practices.
C. Joseph Stetler of the AMA initiated a series of national congresses on medical quackery, the first of which was held in 1961. They were sponsored jointly with the Food and Drug Administration and were highly successful in terms of press coverage, attendance, quality of speakers, and spinoff conferences.
Four national congresses, held in 1961, 1963, 1966, and 1968, included exhibits called "Nutrition Nonsense" and "Mechanical Quackery." Sometimes "Quack Packs" were distributed. Twenty-five states held twenty-six spinoff state conferences on medical quackery between 1962 and 1966.
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Neurotic Disorders
Nevus
Nevus
Newspapers
Nicotine
Noise
Nose
Nose Diseases
Nose Diseases
Nostrums
Nursing homes
Nursing services
Nutrition
Obesity
Obesity
Obesity
Obstetrics
Occultism
Occupational health services
Occupational Medicine
Oils
Ointments
omega
Ophthalmology
Opioid
Opioid
Opioid
Opium
Optometry
Optometry
Oral Hygiene
Organization
Organizations
Orgasm
Orthomolecular Therapy
Orthopedic Equipment
Orthopedics
Osteopathic medicine
Osteopathic medicine
Oxygen
Oxygen
Oxyuriasis
Oxyuriasis
Ozone
Ozone
Pain
Pain
Pamphlets
Panax
Pangamic Acid
Paralysis
Paralysis
Paralysis
Paranasal Sinus Diseases
Paranasal Sinus Diseases
Paranasal Sinuses
Parkinson Disease
Patents
Patient advocacy
Patients
Pediatrics
Pellagra
Pellagra
Penis
Peptic Ulcer
Peptic Ulcer
Periodicals
Periodicals
Periodicity
Periodontal Diseases
Periodontal Diseases
Personality assessment
Personnel management
Pessaries
Pest Control
Petrolatum
Pharmaceutical Preparations
Pharmacopoeias
Pharmacy
Pharyngitis
Pharyngitis
Phenacetin
Phenobarbital
Phenobarbital
Phenolphthaleins
Phenolphthaleins
Phenytoin
Phenytoin
Phosphates
Phosphatidylcholines
Photography
Phrenology
Physical education and training
Physical Examination
Physical fitness
Physical therapy
Physical therapy
Physician
Physician Impairment
Physicians
Placebos
Surgery, Plastic
Pleurisy
Pleurisy
Pneumonia
Pneumonia
Pneumonia
Podiatry
Poisoning
Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis
Population
Postal service History
Pregnancy
Pregnancy Tests
Premenstrual syndrome
Premenstrual syndrome
Procaine
Procaine
Professional
Prostate
Prostate
Prostatic Diseases
Prostatic Diseases
Proteins
Psoriasis
Psoriasis
Psychiatry
Psychoanalysis
Psychology
Psychosurgery
Psychotherapy
Publication
Publications
Public health
Public health administration
Quackery
Quinine
Rabies
Rabies
Radiation
Radiesthesia
Radio
Radioactivity
Radioactivity
Radiography
Radiotherapy
Radio waves
Radium
Radium
Radium
Radon
Railroads
Reading disability
Rectal Diseases
Rectal Diseases
Rectal Fistula
Rectal Fistula
Referral and Consultation
Refrigeration
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation centers
Rejuvenation
Rejuvenation
Religion and Medicine
Reproductive History
Research
Respiratory Tract Diseases
Respiratory Tract Diseases
Respiratory Tract Diseases
Reye Syndrome
Rheumatic Diseases
Rheumatic Diseases
Rheumatic Diseases
Rhytidoplasty
Rickets
Rickets
Saccharin
Salts
Salts
Sanitation
Santonin
Santonin
Scarlet Fever
Scarlet Fever
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia
Schools
Sciatica
Sciatica
Sclerotherapy
Seawater
Seawater
Seaweed
Seaweed
Sedatives, Nonbarbiturate
Selenium
Self Care
Self Concept
Self Medication
Sensitivity Training Groups
Shock, Septic
Shock, Septic
Seventh-day Adventists
Sex
Sex counseling
Sex counseling
Sex Determination
Sex Differentiation Disorders
Sex Differentiation Disorders
Sex Disorders
Sex Disorders
Sex Education
Sexual behavior
Sexual behavior
Sexually transmitted diseases
Sexually transmitted diseases
Sexual Partners
Shoes
Shoes
Short
Shyness
Silicones
Sinusitis
Sinusitis
Skin Diseases
Skin Diseases
Skin Diseases
Skin Diseases
Skin Tests
Sleep
Sleep
Sleep Disorders
Sleep Disorders
Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders
Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders
Smallpox
Smallpox
Smoking
Snake Bites
Snake Bites
Snake Venoms
Snake Venoms
Sneezing
Snoring
Soap
Soaps
Social Control, Formal
Social security
Social welfare
Societies
Societies, Dental
Sociology, Medical
Sodium Chloride
Sodium Chloride
Specialty Boards
Spinal Cord Diseases
Spinal Cord Diseases
Spinal Diseases
Spinal Diseases
Spinal Injuries
Spinal Injuries
Spiritualism
Sports medicine
Steam Bath
Steam Bath
Sterilization, Reproductive
Stomach Diseases
Stomach Diseases
Stomach Ulcer
Stomach Ulcer
Streptococcal Infections
Streptococcal Infections
Stress
Stress
Stuttering
Stuttering
Substance abuse
Substance abuse
Substance
Substance
Suicide
Sulfanilamides
Sulfanilamides
Sulfur
Sunburn
Sunburn
Sunscreening Agents
Superstitions
Surgery
Syphilis
Syphilis
Tabes Dorsalis
Tabes Dorsalis
Tea
Television
Temperance
Temporomandibular Joint Dysfunction Syndrome
Temporomandibular Joint Dysfunction Syndrome
Tetanus
Tetanus
Thallium
Thermography
Thorium
Thorium
Thyroid Hormones
Thyroid Hormones
Tinea
Tinea
Tinea Pedis
Tinea Pedis
Tobacco
Tobacco
Tobacco Use Disorder
Tobacco Use Disorder
Toes
Tonsil
Tonsillectomy
Tonsillitis
Tonsillitis
Toothache
Toothache
Toothpaste
Transcutaneous Electric Nerve Stimulation
Transplantation
Transsexualism
Tropical medicine
Trusses
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Typhoid fever
Typhoid fever
Ultraviolet Rays
Ultraviolet Therapy
United States Dept. of Health and Human Services
United States Dept. of Health and Human Services
United States Federal Trade Commission
United States Food and Drug Administration
Uranium
Uranium
Uric Acid
Urinary Incontinence
Urinary Incontinence
Urinary Tract Infections
Urinary Tract Infections
Urine
Urine
Urologic Diseases
Urologic Diseases
Urology
Urticaria
Urticaria
Uterine Diseases
Uterine Diseases
Vaccination
Vaccines
Vagina
Vaginal Creams, Foams and Jellies
Vaginal Diseases
Vaginal Diseases
Vanadium
Vanadium
Varicose Veins
Varicose Veins
Vascular Diseases
Vascular Diseases
Vascular Diseases
Vibration
Vibration
Viscum
Vision Disorders
Vision Disorders
Vision Disorders
Vision Disorders
Vision Tests
Vitamin A
Vitamin A
Vitamin B Deficiency
Vitamin B Deficiency
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin E
Vitamins
Vitamins
Vitamins
Vivisection
Vocational guidance
Warts
Warts
Waste Disposal, Fluid
Water
Water
Weight loss
Whooping cough
Whooping cough
Wine
Wine
Women
X-rays
Wound healing
Writing
X-Ray Therapy
Yeast, Dried
Yeast, Dried
Yoga
Yogurt
Yogurt
Nationalities
Activities
Occupations
Legal Statuses
Places
Indiana
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